rub 1 etsþgnþatepøigénfaturkum IA nig IIA. BIeqVgeTAsþaM³ GNþatePøIgrbs;lIcUmB NRkham sudüúmb NelOg Rsþg;cUmB NRkhm nigkal;süúmb NTwkRkUc.

Átírás

1 RTw wsþ þi Ikg; ;Ti ic nw wgtm Mrg; ;egli icrtu Uni icéngatu Um Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms rlkbnøw putug nigrtwsþi Bohr (Light Waves, Photons, and the Bohr Theory) kñúgcmbukti eyig)anbinitüemilgmbitmrg;muldæanéngatum. etahbicaya:gna edim,iyl; BIkarkekItsm<½n KImI eyigrtuvdwggmbitmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum. RTwsþITMrg;eGLicRtUnicén GatUm)ancab;epþImCamYykarBnül;BIB NBnøWEdl)anbegáIteLIgkñúg]sμ½nekþA niggnþatepøig. munnwgeyig GacBiPakSaGMBIcMNucenH eyigrtuvbib NnaBIFmμCatiénBnøW. B NKYr[cab;GarmμN_énkaMRCYc KWGaRs½yeTAnwgcMehHénmsmasFatuelah³. Rsþg;cUm nirtat kabunat b s ulpat[b NRkhcas; )arüúmnirtat b køry[b Nébtg nigtg;edgnirtat b s ulpat[b Nexovébtg. KImIviTU)ancab;epþImsikSaB NGNþatePøIgkñúgstvtSTI8 nigbnþab;mk)anerbignþatepøig edim,iefvikarsakl,g etsþ etaelipabxuskñarvagsmasfatusudüúm nigb:utasüúm. karefiv etsþgnþatepøigmanpabgayrsyledim,ikmnt;gtþsbaøanrbs;fatu. enaeblsmasfatuelah³eqhkñúggnþatepøig vabeba jbnøwecgcamg (rub ). rub etsþgnþatepøigénfaturkum IA nig IIA. BIeqVgeTAsþaM³ GNþatePøIgrbs;lIcUmB NRkham sudüúmb NelOg Rsþg;cUmB NRkhm nigkal;süúmb NTwkRkUc. 7-

2 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum etahbicagnþatepøigb NRkhménlIcUm nigrsþg;cumelceligrsedogkña BnøWnImYy² GacEjkBIPaBxusKña)antammeFüa)ayRBIs (prism). enhcadmenahrsaygayénfatubir xuskña rub. rub karbeba js,úicbnþat;énfatumyycmnyn. bnþat;tamgenhrtuvkñaetanwgbnøwemilexijedl beba j edaygatum. CMhanrlkénbnÞat;TaMgenHKWKitCaNaNUEm:Rt. lkçn³rlkbnøw (The wave nature of light) RbsinebIeyIgTMlak;dMufμmYydMueTAkñúgRtBaMgmYys at; Kμanrlk \T iblénfμcamyytwk cab;epþimefviclnaeligcuheliépþtwk manrlk. clnaeligcuhenhpøas;tiecjbikenøgedl 7-

3 fμføak;. enhca]tahrn_rsedogkñamyyénrlk. rlk Cakarpøas;bþÚrdEdl²Cabnþ b lmeyal kñúgrubfatu b kñúgednrub. BnøWk¾dUcCarlkEdr vamanlmeyalkñúgedngkáisni nigm:aej:tic Edlpøas;TItamlMh. BnøWemIleXIj kamrsμi X nigrlkvitüú CaRbePTkaMrsμIeGLicRtUm:aej:Tic. eyigsmkal;rlkmyyedaycmhanrlk nigerhvkg;rbs;va. CMhanrlksMKal;edayGkSr λ (LaMda) CacMgayrvagcMnucdUcKñaebHbiTBIrEdlCab;Kñaénrlk. duecñhcmhanrlk CacMgay rvagbic (peak) BIrEdlenACab;Kñaénrlk rub 3. rlkvitüúmancmhanrlkrbehlbi 00mm eta m. BnøWemIleXIjmanCMhanrlkxøICagRbEhl 0 m. CMhanrlk -6 énbnøwemilexijetgetkitcananuem:rt (nm = 0 m). ]TahrN_ BnøWén CMhanrlk -9 5,55 x 0-7 m (555nm) CaBnøWelOg-ébtg EdlEPñkmnusSqab;emIleXIjbMput. erhvkg;rlk CacMnYnCMhanrlkEdlpøas;TIqøgkat;cMNucCak;lak;mYykñúgmYyÉktaén ry³ebl (CaTUeTAmYYyvinaTI). ]TahrN_ Gñke)aHyufáaenAkñúgTuktUcmYyelIRtBaMg enaebldmufμ RtUv)anTMlak;eTAkñúgTwk. rlkpøas;tiecjbicmnucenh ehiyqøgkat;tukrbs;gñk. cmnyncmhan rlkedlpøas;tiqøgkat;gñkkñúgmyyvinati CaeRhVkg;énrlkenaH. rub 3>rlkTwk rlkggáaj;². CMhanrlk λ CacMgayrvagBicBIr (two peaks) erhvkkg; tagedaygksrrkic ν (nuy). xñaténerhvkg;kw /s b s ehiyehafa EG k - (Hz) pgedr. CMhan nigerhvkg;rlkmantmnak;tmngcamyykñaetavijetamk. CaTUeTAcMeBaHrlkén erhvkg; ν nigcmhanrlk λ mancmhanrlkesμinwg ν EdlCMhanrlknimYy² esμinwg λ Edlpøas; TIqøgkat;cMnucCak;lak;mYyral;vinaTI. plkun νλ CaRbEvgrlksrubEdl)anqøgkat;cMnucenaH kñúgmyyvinati. RbEvgrlkkñúgmYyvinaTIenH Cael,Ónrlk c. duecñh c = νλ rsμiμeglicrtuma:ejtic ³ snæanclnarlkedlmanedngkáisniqøas;nigednma:ejticedlrt;kñúgel,ón elonx<s;bmput (3 X 0 m/s)

4 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum el,ónrlkbnøwgars½yetanwgmcädæanedlvaqøgkat;. kñúgsubaaøkasel,ón KW 3,00 x 0 8 m/s ehiyel,ónkñúgxül;kwmantméltuccagenhbnþicetb:uenñah. cmebahkarknnaenakñúgepñkenh eyignwgsnμtfabnøwpøas;tikñúgsubaaøkas. ]TahrN_ ³ karknnacmhanrlkénbnøwbierhvkg;rbs;va eticmhanrlkbeba jedaysudüúmb NelOg EdlmaneRhVkg; 5,09 x 0 4 /s esμinwgb:unμan? cmeliy³ erhvkg; nigcmhanrlkkwtak;tgetanwgrubmnþ c = νλ. eyiggactermob rubmnþenheligvij eyig)an³ λ = υc Edl c Cael,ÓnBnøW (3,00 x 0 8 m/s). CMnYstMélva eyig)an³ λ = 3,00 x 0 8 m/s 5,09 x 04/s = 5,89 x 0-7 m b 589 nm lmhat; 7>³ erhvkg;énbnþat;rkhmcamkñúgs,úicénb:utasüúmkw 3,9 x 0 4 /s. eticmhanrlkén BnøWenHesμInwgb:unμan (KitCaNaNUEm:Rt)? ]TahrN_ ³ karknnaerhvkg;bnøwbi;cmhanrlkrbs;va etierhvkg;bnøwb NsVayEdlmanCMhanrlk 408nm esμinwgb:unμan? cmeliy³ eyiggactermobsmikareligvij EdlTak;TgeTAnwgeRhVkg; nigcmhanrlk eyig)an³ ν = λ c CMnYs λ = 408nm = 408 x 0-9 m eyig)an³ ν = 8 3,00 x 0 m/s = 7,35 x 0 4 /s x 0 m lmhat; ³ FatuessüÚm)anrkeXIjkñúgqñaM860 edayelak Robert Bunsen nig Gustav Kirchhoff. Kat;)anrkeXIjBnøWbnÞat;exovBIr kñúgs,úicénsarfatuedl)anejkecjbi TwkxniC. s,úicmyykñúgcmenams,úicbnþat;tamgenhénessüúmmancmhanrlk 456nm. etierhvkg;rbs;vaesμinwgb:unμan? kartermobénerhvkg; b CMhanrlkénkaMrsμIeGLicRtUm:aej:TicehAfa s,úiceglicrtu m:aej:tic EdlbgðajkñúgrUb 4. BnøWGacemIleXIjlatsn wgbicugb NsVayéns,úicEdlman CMhanrlkRbEhl 400nm eta cugb NRkhméns,úicEdlmanCMhanrlkticCag 800nm. kamrsμieglicrtum:aej:ticedlmancmhanrlkfmcagenh mingacemilexijedayepñkmnusset. kamrsμigamgrhvarkhm (Infrared) mancmhanrlkfmcag 800nm (FMCagCMhanrlkénBnøW 7-4

5 B NRkhm) nigkamrsμig ulrtasvay (Ultraviolet) mancmhanrlkticcag 400nm (ticcagcmhanrlkénbnøwb NsVay). rub 4 s,úiceglicrtum:aej:tic.kareckrvagtmbn;edlmin)ankmnt;c,as;las;. plkg;tic nigputug ( Quantum Effects and Photons) elak Isaac Newton )ansiksabilkçn³bnøwkñúgstvtsti7. Kat;eCOfaBnøWpSMeLIg BI)ac;PaKl it. etahbiya:gna kñúgqñam80 rubvitucncatigg;ekøs elak Thomas Young )anbgðajfa Bnøwk¾dUcCarlkEdr vagaccamgpøatbnøw. karcamgpøatbnøw CalkçN³rlk EdlkñúgenaHrlkrIkraldalenAeBleKb:HCamYyvtßú b RbehagtUcRbEhlTMhMénCMhanrlk. GñkGacGegátkarcaMgpøaténBnøwedaykaremIlRbPBBnøWtamRbehagmYy. ]TahrN_ karemil epøigcracrn_tamrklavamgnn. rubpabénepøigcracrn_rtuvefivegayrbiledaycmnamgpøaténbnøw. enaedimstvtsti0enh RTwsþIrlkBnøWmanlkçN³l RbesIr. b:uenþkñúgqñam905 rubvitugalwm:g;elak Albert Einstein ( ) )anetars;enashrdægaemrikkñúgqñam933 Kat;GacBnül;BI)atuPUt\T iblputueglicrticedayesñifa BnøWmanTaMglkçN³rlk nigpakl it. elak Einstein smgagtssn³enhetaelikic karrbs;rubvitugalwm:g;elak Max Planck ( ). kg;tickmμfamblrbs;bøg; ( Planck's Quantization of Energy) kñúgqñam900 elak Planck )anrkexijrubmnþrtwsþiedlbibnnaya:gcak;lak;bi GaMgtg;sIuetBnøWEdlmaneRhVkg;xus²Kña EdlbeBa jedayggáfaturwgekþaenasitunðpabxus²kña. fμi²enhkarrk exijepsg² etottamry³biesafnbgðajfa GaMgtg;sIuetBnøWGtibrimaBIGgÁFaturwg elak Planck KWCasa sþacarürubvitüaénsaklvitüal½y Berlin enaebledlkat;efivkarrsavrcavenh. Kat;TTYl)anBanrgVan; Nobel kñúgepñkrubviepñkrubvitüa kñúgqñam

6 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum ekþaerbrbylcak;lak;camyysitunðpab. GgÁFatrwgbeBa jbnøwrkhmenasitunðpab 750 o C bnþab;etacabnøwb NsenAsItuNðPaB 00 C. enasitunðpabtabcagenh vabeba jbnøwrkhm. o enaeblsitunðpabekinelig BnøWB NelOg nigbnøwb NexovEdllayCamYyBnøWB NRkhm [CaBnøWB Ns. Ep ktamelak Planck GatUmGgÁFaturwgeyal b j½rmanerhvkg;kmnt; ν. lmj½rgatumgacmanfamblcak;lak;etmyykt; E Edl E = nhν Edl n =,, 3,... nig h Ca efr Planck \LÚvehAfa emkun Planck = 6,63 x 0 J.s. tmélén -34 n RtUvEt b b epsgetotcacmnynkt;. duecñhfambletmyykt;edlgatumj½rgacmankw hν, hν, 3hν.l. cmnyntageday n ehafacmnynkg;tic. famblj½réngatumrtuv)anekehafa CafamBlkg;Tickmμ. mann½yfa CafamBlkMNt;sMrab;tMélCak;lak;mYy. kg;tickmμfamblhak;duccapþúyetanwgkarbiesafrbcaméf. ]TahrN_ kg;tickmμénclna rfynþmann½yfa el,óncak;lak;etmyykt;gacman. rfynþgacefviclna ena 0, 0 b 30 m:aykñúgmyyem:ag (mi/h) b:uenþminemnena b 5 mi/h b enael,ónmfümepsgetotet. cmebahfamblrfynþ enhtmngcaminsmehtupl. b:uenþcmebahgatum kg;tickmμkwcac,ab;. plputueglicrtic (Photoelectric effect) elak Einstein )anpþl;ehtuplfa ebigatumj½refvi[erbrbylfamblfa ]TahrN_ BI 3 3hν eta hν vartuvetbnßyfambl hν dg nigfamblenhrtuvet)anbeba jmyyepñktuc (b kg;tic) énfamblbnøw. duecñh Kat;esñIfa BnøWpSMeLIgBIkg;ta (\LÚvenHehAfa putug) b PaKl iténfambleglicrtum:aej:tic EdlfamBl E smamartetanwgerhvkg;bnøwenah³ E = hv 3 elak Albert Einstien TTYl)an Ph.D kñúgqñam905. kñúgqñamenhedr Kat;)ane)aHBumÖÉksarRsavRCav sþibikarbmebkpabedimcmnynr)am³ ÉksarmYysþIGMBI\T iblputueglicrtic EdlTak;TgeTAnwgkar)anTTYlBanrgVan; BiPBelakEpñkrUbviTüakñúgqñaM9 ÉksarmYyeTotelIcMNuHkMedAénGgÁFaturwg erbikg;tickmμedim,ibnül; faeti ehtugvicmnuhkmedamantmélsunüenasunüdac;xat. ÉksarBIreTotelITMnak;TMnges<or nigéksarmyyetoteli clna Brownian EdlnaMeTABiesaFnEdl)aneFIVetsþBIRTwsþIm:UelKul-sIuenTic nig)anbba b;karmnþiledlenasl;én GtßiPaBénGatUm nigm:uelkul. 7-6

7 kñúgqñam905 elak Einstein )anerbibbaøtiþputugedim,ibnül;biplputueglicrtic. plputu eglicrtic CakarbeBa jeglicrtugbiépþelah³ b BIrUbFatuepSgeTot kalnabnøwcamgb:hva (emilrub 5). etahbiya:gna eglicrtugbeba j enaeblerhvkg;bnøwx<s;cagtmélkmnt; lkçn³énelah³enahetb:uenañh. ]TahrN_ etahbibnøwb NsVay nwgbnþalegayelah³ b:utasüúmbeba jeglicrtug EtBnøWB NRkhmbrimaNb:unμan (Edlman erhvkg;tabcag) k¾minmanplgivetaelielah³b:utasüúmet. edim,ibnül;bipabtak;tgénplputueglicrticelierhvkg; elak Einstein )ansnμtfa eglicrtugmyypþac;ecjbielah³kalnavab:hcamyyputugmyy. duecñh putugenhrtuvetman famblrkb;rkan;edim,ipþac;eglicrtugbikmlamgtmnajénelah³. minfamanputugb:unμanb:heta elielah³enahet RbsinebIKμanpUtugNamYymanfamBl)ankar RKb;RKan; enaheglicrtug mingacpþac;)anet. putugbnøwb NRkhmmYy manfamblminrkb;rkan;edim,iykeglicrtugecj BIb:UtasüÚm. b:uenþ putugedlrtuvkñaetanwgerhvkg;x<s;bmputmanfamblrkb;rkan; nigenaerhvkg; x<s;cag vamanfamblelisbirkb;rkan;. kalnaputugb:hnwgelah³famblrbs;va hνrtuvrsub ykedayeglicrtug. putugsßitenacapakl itgayrgsmrub. rub 5 plputueglicrtic. BnøWcaMgb:HelIépÞelah³Edlpþac;eGLicRtug. épþelah³kw)andak; kñúgbmbg;beba jedlgnubaaøtþ[eglicrtugxþatecjya:grh½skøayetacabnþ³ EdlmanbnÞúkviC man. ena eblerhvkg;rkb;rkan;b:hetaelielah³ eglicrtugesrirtuv)anbegáitelig nigcrnþqøgkat;tambmbg;. crnþenhrtuv)anvas;eday]bkrn_gmebem:rt. enaeblbnøwbit crnþqb;hur. 7-7

8 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum rubpabrlk nigpakl iténbnøwrtuv)ancat;tukcatidæpabbenßménlkçn³rubduckña. enhehafaetvpabrlk-pakl iténbnøw. smikar E = hv bgðajbilkçn³enh Edl E KWCafamBlénPaKl itbnøw b putug nig v KWCae hvkg;énrlkedlrtuvkñaenah. mingacet rlkmyy b EtPaKl itmyykwcakarbn naebjeljénbnøw luhrtaettamgbir. ]TahrN_ 3³ karknnafamblputug bnþat;s,úicrkhménlicumekiteligena 67nm (6,7 x 0-7 m). KNnafamBlpUtug myyénbnøwenh? cmeliy³ erhvkg;bnøwenhkw³ v = λ c = 8 3,00x0 m / s = 4,47 x 0 4 /s 7 6,7x0 m duecñh famblputugmyykw³ E = hν = 6.63 x 0-34 J.s x 4.47 x 0 4 /s =.96 x 0-9 J lmhat; 3³ xagerkamenh tagcmhanrlkkñúgtmbn; GaMgRhVaRkhm svayg ulrta nigkamrsμi X éns,úiceglicrtum:aej:ticerogkñakw,00 x 0-6 m,,00 x 0-8 m nig,00 x 0 m. -0 KNnafamBlpUtugmYyrbs;kaMrsμInImYy²? myyputugfmcagek nigtuccagek? etikamrsμinamyyedlmanbrimanfamblkñúg 3 RTwsþI Bohr éngatumgiurduesn (The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom) tamkmrunuyekøeg rrbs; Rutherford (Epñk >) GatUmmanéNVy:UEdlmanm:asPaKeRcIn éngatum nigbnþúkvic manedlmaneglicrtugrkb;rkan;vilcmuvijbnþúkvic mantamgenahedim,ibegáit GatUmNWt. b:uenþkmruenh)andak;egayerbir)as; nigecatcabbaðakñúgqñam9. karerbir)as; RTwsþIcrnþenaH ekgacbgðajfapakl itedlmanbnþúkgkáisni (duccaeglicrtug) EdlvilCMuvij mnðl énvy:u RtUvEt)at;bg;famBlEdlCakaMrsμIeGLicRtUma:ej:Tic. enaebledl eglicrtugkñúggatum)at;bg;fambl vartuvetmanclnacaes<oretakñúgénvy:u (RbEhl 0-0 s tamrtwsþienaeblenah). sßirpabéngatumenaeblenahmingacbnül;)aneliy. dmenahrsaycmebahbbaðartwsþienh)anrkexijenaqñam93 edayelak Niels Bohr (885-96) rubvitucncati Danish EdlenAeBlenaH Kat;)aneFVIkarCamYyelak Rutherford (emilrub 6). edayep ketaelikargarrbs; Planck nig Einstein elak Bohr )anyketa 7-8

9 GnuvtþedIm,IbegáItRTwsþIfμIeTAelIGatUmgay GIuRdUEsn. munnwgemilrtwsþi Bohr eyigrtuvbinitüemilbnþat;s,úicéngatum. s,úicbnþat;gatum (Atomic Line Spectra) rub 6 Niels Bohr (885-96). elak Bohr )angpivdæn¾rtwsþikg;ticéngatumgiurduesnrbs; Kat;. Kat;eRbITsSn³enHedIm,IBnül;lkçN³xYbén Fatu. bnþab;mk enaeblemkanickg;ticfμirtuv) an rkexij eday Schrödinger nig Heisenberg elak Bohr )ancmnayeblkat;y:agercinedim,iefvikargpivdæ muldæantssn³vic arbs;kat;. Kat;)anTTYlBan rgvan;bipbelakepñkrubvitüaenaqñam 9. duc)anbibn naenaepñkmun GgÁFaturwgekþAbeBa jbnøw. srésrtg;esþnekþaenakñúggmbul epøigca]tahrn_myy. eyiggacbrgikbnøwecjbigmbuledayerbirbis edim,ittyl)an s,úiccab; mann½yfa CaBnøWEdlmans,úicRKb;CMhanrlkdUcCa\n FnU (emilrub 7). etahbiya:gna BnøW)anbeBa jedaykmeda]sμ½npþl;plxus²kña vamanrkb;b Nén\n ÚEdlCa s,úicbnþat; Edl bgðajb NBitR)akd b CMhanrlkBiessénBnøWEtb:eNÑaH. enaeblbnøwecjbibmbg;beba j]sμ½n GIuRdUEsn (EdlkarbBa úhkmlamggkáisnienh)ankmeda]sμ½ngiurduesn) RtUv)anEjkecjeTAkñúgPaK psmrbs;vatamry³rbis vabegáitcas,úicbnþat;myyedlrtuvkñaetanwgbnøwéncmhanrlkenah. BnøW enakñúgbmbg;enah RtUv)anbeBa jedaygatumgiurduesn. rub bgðajs,úicbnþat;éngatum GIuRdUEsn Cas,úicbnÞat; duccagatumdétetotedr. s,úicbnþat;éngatumgiurduesnmanlkçn³sambaøbmput. kñúgtmbn;emilexij vaman bnþat;etbynkt; (Rkhm exov-ébtg exov nigsvay) etahbicakarelceligepsgetotkñúg tmbn;gamgrhvarkhm nig G ulrtasvay. kñúgqñam885 elak Balmer )anbgðajfa CMhanrlk λ kñúgs,úicemilexijéngiurduesn GacRtUv)anbegáIteLIgedaysmIkargay³ =,097 x 0 7 /m ( - λ n ) Edl n myycmnyncacmnynkt; (elxkt;) FMCag. edaykarcmnys n = 3 Ca]TahrN_ nig karknna 7-9

10 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum nigbnþab;mk λ krnimyyrkexij λ = 6,56 x 0-7 m b 656nm CaCMhanrlkEdl λ RtUvKñaeTAnwgBnøWB NRkhm. CMhanrlkénbnÞat;epSgeTotkñúgs,úicemIleXIjénGatUm GIuRdUEsn KW)anmkedaykarCMnYsCabnþbnÞab; n = 4, n = 5 nig n = 6. RTwsþI Bohr (Bohr's Postulates) elak Bohr dak;ecjnuvrtwsþiedim,ibnül; () sßirpabéngatumgiurduesn (EdlGatUmman nigeglicrtugrbs;vamingacbnþkarbeba jfambl nigminmanclnaes<óretakñúgénvy:u) nig () bnþat;s,úicéngatum. k> RTwsþIkMritfamBl (Energy Level Postulate) eglicrtuggacmantmélfamblcak;lak;etmyykt;kñúggatumedlehafa kmritfambl rbs;va. duecñh GatUmxøÜnÉgGacmantMélfamBlsrubCak;lak;EtmYyKt;. elak Bohr )anerbitssn³kg;tickmμénfamblrbs;elak Planck. etahbiy:agna k¾edayelak Bohr )anbegáitc,ab;myyeligsmrab;kg;tickmμenhedlgacrtuv)angnuvtþetaeli clnaeglicrtugkñúggatum. tamry³c,ab;enh Kat;begáItrUbmnþdUcxageRkamsMrab;kMritfamBl eglicrtugkñúggatumgiurduesn. R E = H n =,, 3,... (smrab;gatumgiurduesn) n Edl R H Caefr (KitCaxñatfamBl) mantmél,80x0 J. tmélfambleglicrtug -8 xus²kñaedlgacmankw)anmkedaykarcmnystmélxus²kñarbs; n EdlGacmantMélEtCacMnYn Kt;KW,, 3.l. rhutdl;. n KWehAfa cmnynkg;ticem. rub 8 bgðajbikmritfambl eglicrtugkñúggatumgiurduesn. x>pabqøgrvagkmritfambl (transitions between energy levels) eglicrtugkñúggatumgacpøas;bþúrkmritfambledaykarqøgbikmritfamblmyyetakmrit famblmyyepsgetotb:uenñh. tamry³karefviduecñh eglicrtugrgnuvpabqøg. eyigbnül;karbeba jbnøwedaygatumedim,ibegáitcabnþat;s,úicducteta³ eglicrtugena kmritfamblx<s;cag (kmritfambledim E i ) rgnuvpabqøgetakmritfambltabcag (kmritfambl bba b; E f ) emilrub 8. kñúglmnamenh eglicrtug)at;bg;fambledl)anbeba jcaputug. müa:getot famblbba b;éneglicrtugbukfamblputugesμinwgfamblediméneglicrtug (tam c,ab;rksafambl)³ E f hυ = Ei 7-0

11 edaytmerobeligvij eyig)an³ famblputugedl)anbeba j = hυ = E i E f rub 7 karray)a:yénbnøwb NsedayRBIs. BnøWB NscUleTAEpñkxageqVgb:HCamYyRBIs EdlbnSay BnøWeTACa s,úiccab;éncmhanrlk. rub8 düarkamkmritfamblsmrab;eglicrtugkñúg GatUm GIuRdUEsn. fambl)anbrgayeli G½kSQr kñúgpl KuNRbPaKén R H. RBYjtMNag[eGLicRtug kñúgpabqøg (BiPakSakñúgRTwsþI ) BIkMrit n = 4 etakmrit n =. BnøWénCMhanrlk486nm(exovébtg)KW)anbeBa j. emil]tahrn_ 4 smrab; karknnaén CMhanrlkenH. enakñúgrtwsþienh elak Bohr )anerbibbaøtþiputugrbs;elak Einstein edim,ibnül;bi s,úicbnøwéngatum. edaykarcmnystmélkmritfamblrbs;eglicrtugkñúggatumgiurduesnetakñúg 7-

12 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum smikarxageli Kat; GacbegáItrUbmnþ Balmer eligvij)anya:gcak;lak;. elisbienhetaetot Kat;GacTsSn_Tay RKb;bnÞat;enAkñúgs,úicénGatUmGIuRdUEsnrab;bBa ÚlTaMgbnÞat;s,úicenAkñúgtMbn; GaMgRhVaRkhm nigg ulrtasvay. edim,ibgðajfaetielak Bohr begáitrubmnþ Balmer y:agduemþc? cursresr n i smrab;kg;ticeménkmritfambledim nig n f smrab;kg;ticeménkmritfamblbba b;. BI RTwsþI eyig)an³ RH RH nig E f = - esμi E i - E E i = - n i n f eygc I MnYstMélTaMgenHeTAkñúgsmIkarmun EdlEcgfafamBlpUtugEdl)anbeBa j h υ f h υ = E - E = H i f ( ni R H ) - ( R ) n f rub 9 PaBqøgéneGLicRtugkñúgGatUm GIuRdUEsn. RdaRkambgðajesrI Lyman, Balmer nig Paschen énpabqøg EdlekIteLIgsMrab; n f esμi, nig 3 erogkña. Edl υ h = H eday υ c λ h = 6,66 x 0 R ( ) - ( n f = eyig)an³ λ = hc n ) i R H n f n i Jxs nig c =,998 x 0 m/s eyig)an edaykarcmnys R H =,80 x 0-8 J, R H 7 =,097 x 0 m hc 7-

13 EdlCatMélefr)an[kñúgrUbmnþ Balmer. kñúgrubmnþ Balmer cmnynkg;tic n f KW. mann½yfa rubmnþ Balmer [ CMhanrlkEdlekIteLIgkalNaeGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsnrgPaBqøg BIkMritfamBl n i > etakmrit n f =. ebicmnys n f edaycmnynkt;epsgetot eyig)anes riepsg²kñaénbnþat; (b CMhanrlk) smrab;s,úicéngatumgiurduesn (emilrub 9). ]TahrN_ 4³ karkmnt;cmhanrlkénerhvkg; b erhvkg;pabqøgrbs;gatumgiurduesn eticmhanrlkénbnøw)anbeba jkalnaeglicrtugkñúggatumgiurduesnrgpabqøgbi kmritfambl n = 4 etakmritfambl n = esμinwgb:unμan? R yut sa sþ³ Gñkcab;epþImedateRbIrUbmnþsMrab;kMritfamBlénGatUmGIuRdUEsn E = - H n nigtajrkbnþúrfamblpabqøg. PaBxusKñaénfamBlenHesμInwgfamBlpUtugEdlGñkGac KNnaeRhVkg; nigbnþab;mkcmhanrlkénbnøwenah. (etahbieyiggacedahrsaylmhat;enh edaykarcmnystméletakñúgsmikartaj)an k¾eday EtviFIsaRsþx agerkamenh R trmuv[gñkcgcamrub mnþknwø E = - H n =,, 3, (smrab;gatumgiurduesn). n cmeliy BIrUbmnþsMrab;kMritfamBl e yig)an³ λ R E i = - H RH R = nig E f = - H RH = - 4 eyigdktméltabbitmélx<s;edim,ittyllt plvic man. (famblputugkwvic ma n. ebilt plrbs;gñkgvic man mann½yfa eyig)anknna E f - E i CaCag E i - E f. PaBgayRsYledayRKan;EtRtLb;sBaaØdkedIm,I)anlT plvic man). edaysarlt plenhesμinwgfamblputug GñkeFVIva[esμIeTA h υ. erhvkg;bnøwenahkw³ R R H 6 4 υ = edayehtufa λ = H 4RH 6RH = 64 RH + 4R = 6 R 8 3 3,80x0 J H x 6,7 x 0 4 = = / s 34 6h 6 6,63x0 J. s c λ = υ 8 3,00x0 m / s 7 = 4,86x0 m b 486m 4 6,7x0 / s CaB Nexov-ébtg (emilrub 8). H 3R = 6 H = hυ 7-3

14 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum lmhat; 4³ KNnaCMhanrlkBnøWEdl)anbeBa jgatumgiurduesn kalnaeglicrtugrg PaBqøgBIkMrit n = 3 etakmrit n =. emillmhat; 33/ 34/ 35/ nig 36 tamrtwsþi Bohr karbeba jbnøwbigatumekitelig kalnaeglicrtugrgpabqøgbi kmritfamblx<s;etakmritfambltabcag. edim,iefvi[karbnül;manlkçn³ebjelj eyigrtuv Bnül; faetieglicrtugculetakmritx<s;cagmunkarbeba jbnøw. CaTUeTAeGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdU EsnmankñúgkMritTabbMputrbs;va b kmrit n =. edim,ibba ÚleTAkMritfamBlx<s;Cag eglicrtug RtUvEtcMeNjfamBl b )anlmejac. vifimyyetotgacekiteligkwetatamkartgáickñaéngatum GIuRdUEsnBIr. kñúgebltgáicenh famblsiuenticéngatummyygacrtuv)ancmenjedaysar eglicrtugéngatumdétetot EdlCaehtueFVIeGaymankarrujeLIg b karlmejaceglicrtug BIkMrit n = etakmritfamblx<s;cag. PaBlMejacénGatUm nigkarbeba jbnøwtmenar ekiteligkñúg]sμ½nekþa enaeblgatummanfamblsiuenticfm. RTwsþI Bohr minemnrkan;etbnül;bikarbeba jbnøwetb:uenñahet b:uenþk¾bnül;bismrubbnøw pgedr. enaebleglicrtugkñúggatumgiurduesnrgpabqøgbi n = 3 eta n = putugbnøwb N RkhmRtUv)anbeBa j (CMhanrlk 656nm). kalnabnøwb NRhmEdlmanCMhanrlk 656nm camgbnøwetaeligatumgiurduesnkñúgkmrit n = putuggacrtuv)anrsub. ebiputug RtUv)anRsUb famblrtuv)ancmenjedayeglicrtugedlrgpabqøgenakmrit n = 3. (enhkwcakarpþúyetanwglmnambeba jbnøwedleyig)anbipaksa). vtßúfatuedlmanb NdUcCa RkNat;RClk;l½k nigcbaa MglabB NcaMgB NedaysarEtsMrUbBnøW. ]TahrN_ kalna BnøWB Nsb:HeTAelIsarFatuEdlRsUbBnøWB NRkhm enahpakpsmb NminRsUbBnøW BnøWB NelOg nigb NexovRtUvcaMgpøatmkvij. sarfatuenahbgðajb Nexov-ébtg. RTwsþI nig erbismrab;gatumedlminemncagatumgiurduesnpgedr elikelgkmrit famblmingacknna)anedayrubmnþgayen. etahbiya:gnak¾eday ebigñksáal;cmhan rlkbnøwedl)anbeba j GñkGacrk υ ehiybnþab;mketot GñkGacrkPaBxusKñakñúgkMrit famblgatum. kmritfamblkmnt;)anedaykarefvibiesaftamvifienh. lmhat; 5³ etipabxuskñakñúgkmritfambléngatumsudüúmesμinwgb:unμan ebibnøwedlbeba jenah mancmhanrlk 589nm? emil lmhat;ti 39,

15 KImIGnuvtþ BnøWLaEs r nigma:siuncak;siudi (Lasers and Compact Disc Players) LaEs rcarbpbén)ac;bnøwm:unurkuma:ticedlpøwecgcamg. vakwcaénr:g;edlmancmhanrlktuc xøamgnas;. rub 0 bgðajbikarerbir)as;bnøwlaes rkñúgkmeragrsavrcav. BaküLaEs renakñúg Bakükat;mann½yfakarBRgIk[FMénBnøWedaybegáInkarbeBa jénkamrsμi. manrbeptxuskñaercin énlaes redl\lúvenhman b:uenþekalkarn_tuetaénlaes rgacyl;)anedaykaremillaes r t,úgttwm (Ruby) CaRbePTdMbUgEdl)anbegáIteLIgkñúgqñaM 960. rub 0 BnøWLaEs renaeblbmelgetacabnøwb Ns. BnøWLaEs rb NRkhmbþÚreTACaB Ns bnþab;mk)anray)a:ycamyyrbisedim,ibgðajb N\nÞFnU. t,úgttwmcagaluymijúmguksiutedlmankmhab;tucéngiuy:ugrkum III, Cr culetacmnys 3+ GIuy:ugGaluymIjÚmmYycMnYn. PaBqøgeGLicRtugkñúgLaEs rt,úgttwmkwca Cr kñúg 3+ Al O 3 rwg. düarkamkmritfamblén Cr kñúgt,úgttwmkw)anbgðajkñúgrub 3+. PaKeRcInén Cr 3+ KWdMbUgfitenAkñúgkMritfamBlTabbMput (kmrit ). ebigñkbba amgbnøwmancmhanrlk 545nm elirkamt,úgttwmkwbnøwenahrtuv)anrsub nig Cr rgpabqøgbikmrit 3+ etakmrit 3. GIuy:ugenH myycmnynkñúgkmrit 3 beba jrbutug nigtlb;etakmrit b:uenþpakercinéngiuy:ugtamgenh rgpabqøg EdlKμankaMrsμIeTAkMrit. kñúgpabqøgtamgenh GIuy:ug)at;bg;famBlEdlCakMedAeTAelIRkam t,úgttwmcacagkarbeba jputug. 7-5

16 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum GIuy:ug Cr 3+ kñúgkmrit minduckmrittabbmputet vakμansßirpab ehiyvanwgrgpabqøgeta kmrit vij. duecñh GñksgÇwmfa Cr 3+ kñúgkmrit edim,irgpabqøgetakmrit edaykarbeba j putugedayékég (CMhanrlkénkarbeBa jenhkw 694nm). rub ³ kmritfambléngiuy:ugrkum III kñúgt,úgttwm. etahbicaya:gnak¾eday karbeba jbnøwedayékégén Cr enhkwmanlkçn³ywt. 3+ ebigñkbeba amgbnøwcibaa cenacmhanrlk 545nm dak;elicgáwht,úgttwm enahgiuy:ug Cr 3+ PaKeRcIn)anbBa b;kñúgkmrit smrab;ry³eblrbehlcamyypakmiløivinati (EdlCary³eBlEvg erbobefobcamyyry³eblgatumlmejacedlmanrbmanca0 s). RbePTlMejacEbbenHKW -8 smxan;nas;edim,idmenirkarlaes r. ebigiuy:uglmejactamgenhgacbeba jbnøwékég b swget ÉkÉg karbeba jbnøwya:gxøamgkøanwgttyl)an. lmnamenhénkarbeba jbnøwkwl \tex ahsmrab;karbeba jegaymanpabqøg. kalnaputug RtUvnwg 694nm b:htgáic Cr kñúgkmrit 3+ vaefivegaygiuy:ugrgnuvpabqøgbikmrit eta kmrit. GIuy:ugenaHbeBa jputugedlmancmhanrlkduckñaebhbitetanwgcmhanrlkénputugedim. kñúg kenøgmanputugetmyy \LÚvenHmanpUtugBIr KWpUtugedImmYy nigmyyetot)anmkedaykarqøg. plsmrylenhbegáingamgtg;siueténbnøwenacmhanrlkenh. duecñh BnøWexSayenA 694nm GacBRgIkedaykarbeBa jbnøwént,úgttwmlmejac. 7-6

17 \LÚvenH eyiggacbnül;bidmenirkarénlaes rt,úgttwm. rublaes r KWbgðajkñúg rub. vapsmeligbicgáwht,úgttwmedlmanggát;p itmyysg;tiem:rt b ticcag nigmanbenþay cm eta 0cm. cgáwht,úúgttwmkwersabedayr)ak;enacugmçagedim,i[épþcamgpøattamgrsug cmenkcugmçagetotmanépþcamgpøatedayepñk. bmbg;gmbulepøigragcaregvlrtuv)andak;bt ½CMuvij cgáwht,úgttwmenah. kalnagmbulrtuvbba amg BnøWEcgcaMgRtUv)anbeBa j rub ³ t,úgttwmlaes r³ GMBUlBnøWeLamBn½ t,úgttwmrtevg. BnøW 545nm (ébtg) BIkarbeBa jbnøw {bum} eglicrtugbikmrit eta kmrit3bnþab;mkkmritbisnæan kar beba j)anbegáin el,óncgvak;laes rena 694nm (Rkhm). begáinel,ónkarbeba jelat RtLb;eRkaynigeTAmux rvagépþcamgpøatenacugbba b;ént,úgttwmrtevgbegáiteliglaes rcamgbnøwcab;kña. EpñkcugbBa b;manépþ camgpøatedayepñkedim,i[bnøwlaes rekitmanbit,úgttwm (ruby). nigbnøwena 545nm (ébtg) KW)anRsUbedayt,ÚgTTwmenaH. GIuy:ug Cr PaKeRcIn 3+ bba b;kñúgkmrit. GIuy:ug Cr xøhetotbeba jputugékégrtuvetanwg nm (BnøWB NRkhm) nigputugtamgenhefviegaygiuy:ugdétetotbeb ajbnøw. enaebledlputugtamgenhcamgpøatrtlb; etartlb;mkrvagépþcamgpøat GIuy:ugkan;EteRcIneTA²RtUv)aneFIVeGaybeBa jbnøw ehiybnøwenah begáin GaMgtg;sIuetya:grh½srhUtdl;vaqøgkat;tamépÞcaMgpøatedayEpñkdUcCakarjak;énBnøW LaEs rena 694nm. BnøWLaEs rkwtak;tgkña. mann½yfarlkekiteligkwcamgbnøwén pastamggs; KWfarlk mankmritgtibrima niggb,brimaenacmnucduckñakñúglmhr nigeblevla. lkçn³éntmnak;tmngbnøwwlaes rkw)anerbienakñúgma:siuncak;siudi (compact disc audio player) (CD). btepøgkwsresrelidiskñúgsnæanefvi[xug b sñamebocenaelisñames<ór. kalna DIs)andMeNIrkarBnøWLaEs rtucftgksrculetakñúgm:asiun rycvacamgrtlb;vijtamry³]bkrn_ 7-7

18 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum esiubrk (detector). )ac;bnøwedl)ancamgrtlb;bisñamebockwerkapascamyybnøw)ancamgrtlb; BIépÞem nigercotcamyyva (rub 3). rub 3³ kargankutelidisbrgüb (CD). BnøWLaEs rtucravrkbrcmerogelidis ehiykwcamg RtLb; erkayeta]bkrn_esiubrk. karercoténrlk)anchrtlb;vijkw)anerbismrab;emil snøak;xug enaeliépþcamgrtlb;éndisedlsresr nigftsemøg. edaysarkarercotenhbnøwedlchrtlb;vijkw)anbnßyrbblpab nig)anbnßy sbaaø]bkrn_esiubrk. karerbrbylsbaaøkwbnþab;mk)anbþúretacasemøg. lkçn³epsgetoténbnøwlaes rkw)anerbikñúgkargnuvtþxus²kña. lt PaBedIm,IRbsBV RbBlPaBBnøWelIsñamKW)aneRbIenAkñúgkarEktRmUvBBUneLIgénkarpþac;ecj BIRsTab;xageRkay énrbrsiepñkedlmanpabrsenakñúgepñk. kñúgrbsit PaB BnøWcaMgLaEs rkw)anerbiedim,itegvi "cmnucpsar" énrstab;xagerkayénrbrsiepñkedlmanpabrs. LaEs rm:asiune)ahbumöduckñaeta nigekalkarénma:siunftcmlg b:uenþerbikmubüút½redim,ip ab;edaypþal;etanigbnøwlaes rkñúgkmruén cmnucetacasnæanrubpab. kñúgkarrsavrcavkimi cmnamgbnøwlaes rpþl;rbblpabbnøw m:unurkum:atic (monochromatic) edim,itamgtikmritfamblkñúgm:uelkuledim,isiksaplitpl rbs;rbtikmμkimiy:agelon nigedim,ivipakpaksmnak smrab;brimantictycénsarfatutamglay. 7-8

19 emkanickg;tic nigcmnynkg;tic (Quantum mechanics and Quantum numbers) RTwsþI Bohr )ansgát;f n;etaelikarbegáitbbaaøtþiénkmritfamblgatum. etahbicaya:g Nak¾eday vamin)anecakc½ykñúgkarbnül;lmgiténtmrg;gatum nigkartssn_taykmritfambl smrab;gatumerkabigatumgiurduesn. karyl;dwgbenßmbitmrg;gatumrtuvkarkargpivdærtwsþiepsg etot. 4 emkanickg;tic (Quantum Mechanics) TsSn³GMBITMrg;GatUmGaRs½yeTAelIeKalkarN_emkanickg;Tic CaRTwsþIEdlGnuvtþeTA elipakl itmirkusáúbtuc (tucnas;) énrubfatuduccaeglicrtug. sbaøndmbugedlnametark kargpivdærtwsþienhkwtmnak;tmng Broglie. TMnak;TMng de Broglie (de Broglie Relation) tam Einstein BnøWminRtwmEtmanlkçN³rlk EdleyIgsMKal;edayeRhVkg; nigcmhan rlkb:uenñahet b:uenþvamanlkçn³pakl itpgedr. ]TahrN_ PaKl iténbnøwputugmanfambl kmnt; E = h υ. ekgacbgðajpgedrfaputugmanm:um:g m:um:g;énpakl itca plkunénm:as h h nigel,ónrbs;va. m:um:g;enhkw mc KWTak;TgeTAnwgCMhanrlkénBnøW mc = b λ =. λ mc kñúgqñam 93 rubvitucncati)aramg Louis de Broglie )anpþl;ehtuplfa ebibnøw (cat;tukfaducrlk) bgðajlkçn³capakl it enahrbehlpakl iténrubfatubgðajlkçn³rlk EteRkamkaleTs³smrmü. duecñh Kat;)anesñIIfa PaKl iténrubfatumanm:as m nigel,ón υ EdlmanCMhanrlkmYyenaHKW³ λ = h smikar λ = ehafa TMnak;TMng Broglie. mc ebirubfatumanlkçn³rlk ehtugvi)ancavaminrtuv)ansegát? karknnaedayerbitmnak; TMng Broglie bgðajfa )al; Baseball (0,45kg) efviclnarbman 60mi/h (7m/s) EdlmanCMhanrlkRbEhl 0-34 m tmélenhtucxøamgnas;swgminkyrecoedlrlkebbenhmin Gaccab;)an. müa:gvijetottambiesafeglicrtugefviclnaenael,ónedlmancmhanrlk BIrbIryBIkUEm:Rt (picometers) (pm = 0 - m). kñúgkalets³smrmülkçn³rlk éneglicrtuggacgegát)an. h mc 7-9

20 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum lkμn³rlkéneglicrtug)anbgðajdmbugkñúgqñam 97 eday C. DAVISON nig L.H GERMER enashrdægaemric nigeday GEORGE PAGET THOMSOM (kunrbusrbs; J.J THOMSON) enarbetsgg;ekøs. ek)anbgðajfa)ac;bnøwéneglicrtugduckñaetanigkamrsμi X Edr GaccaMgpøat)anedayRkam (crystal). rubvitucncatigalwm:g;elak ERNST RUSKA)aneRbIlkçN³rlkenHedIm,IbegáItmIRkUsáúbeGLicRtugdMbUgkñúgqñaM933. Kat;TTYl)an BanrgVan;BiPBelakEpñkrUbviTüasMrab;kargarenHkñúgqñaM 986. rub 4 )anbgðaj]bkrn_. rub 4 karefvivipakmirkusáúbeglicrtug. mirkusáúbenh)anbrgikfamblrhutdl;300,000dg. kenøgkari (operator) PaKsMNaksßitenAxagkñúgbnÞb;EpñkxageqVg nigkaremilexijrubpabenaeli pþamgviedgu sßitenacmknþal. fambledlgacerbi)an b lt PaBbgðajc,as;las;énmIRkUsáúbEdleRbIrlkKWGaRs½y elicmhanrlkrbs;va. edim,ittyl)ancmhanrlkrab;rybikuem:rt eyigrtuvkarcmhanrlkena cenøahenah. kamrsμi X mancmhanrlkkñúgcenøahenh b:uenþknøgmkkμanmefüa)angnuvtþnamyy RtUv)anrkeXIjelIcMnucenHeT. mü:agetoteglicrtuggkáisninigednm:aej:tic. rub 5 bgðaj rubftedl)anftedayerbimirkusáúbeglicrtug.vagacbgðajrubpablmgitcamyy]bkrn_enh. 7-0

21 rub 5 karvipakrubpabmirkusáúbeglicrtug. rubpabenhbgðajfabmenképþénpab KμansñamEdkEfb. rubpabenhkw 00 x 00 μ m. ]TahrN_ 5³ kargnuvtþetaelitmnak;tmng DE BROGLIE k KNnaCMhanrlkKitCaEm:RténrlkEdlmanm:as,00Kg efviclnaena Km/h. x) eticmhanrlk (KitCaBIkUEm:Rt) éneglicrtmyyedlmanm:as 9, x 0-3 Kg nigpøas;tienael,ón 4,9x0 6 m/s b:unμan? (el,ónenhgacttyl)anedaybegáinel,ón eglicrtugrvagbnþhbiredlmanbnþúkxus²kña 50 v:ul,kmlamggkáisnikitcakilúv:ul)anerbikñúg mirkusáúbeglicrtug). cmeliy³ k) el,ón υ kñúg km/hesμi³ 3 km h 0 m,00 x x = 0,78m / s h 3600s km edaykarcmnysbrimantamggs;rkb;rbbn ½xñat SI eyig)an³ h 34 6,63x0 J. s λ = = =,38x0 33 m mv kgx0,78m / s 34 h 6,63x0 J. s x) λ = = =,74 x 0-0 m = 74pm 3 6 mv 9,x0 kgx4,9x0 m / s lmhat; 6³ KNnaCMhanrlk (KitCaBIkUEm:Rt) éneglicrtugmyypøas;tienael,ón,9 x 0 6 m/s. 7-

22 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum GnuKmn_rlk (Wave Functions) TMnak;TMng De Broglies GnuvtþCabrimaNEteTAelIPaKl itkñúgbrisßankmlamg-esri. duecñh vamingacgnuvtþedaypþal;etaelieglicrtugkñúggatum EdleGLicRtugTTYlrgkMlaMg TMnajénéNVy:U. b:uenþkñúgqñam96 elak Erwin Schrödinger 4 )anbegáitrtwsþimyy EdlGaceRbIedIm,IrklkçN³rlkéneGLicRtugkñúgGatUm nigm:uelkul edayep kelikic kar rbs;elak De Broglies. saxaénrubvitüaedlbib NnatamKNitviTüaBIlkçN³rlkén PaKl itmirkusáúbtuc²ehafa emkanickg;tic b emkanicrlk. eblenhedaykμankarerbir)as;knitvitüaénemkanickg;tic eyignwgbipaksaetaelikar sniñdæand¾mansar³smxan;myycmnynénrtwsþienh. kñúgepñkenh emkanickg;ticpøas;bþúrbirebobedl eyigkitgmbiclnaénpakl it. bbaøtiénclna)anmkbigviedleyig)anexijkñúgbipbelakral; éf. ]bmafa eyiggacexig)al;edleyig)ane)ah. Knøg)al;KW)an[edayTItaMg nigel,ón rbs;vaenary³eblxus²kña. duecñh eyigmanlkçxnçsmrab;kitkñúgbribtcmebahknøgcab;én vtßúmanclna. kñúgrtwsþirbs;elak Bohr eglicrtug)anefviclnavilcmuvijénvy:uducepn divilcmuvijrbhgatitü. emkanickg;ticpøas;bþúrtidæpabénclnaenhya:gxøamg. eyigmingackitfa eglicrtugvilcmvijgatumcargvg;etotet. edim,ibibn nabiknøgebbenh eyigrtuvdwgbititamg Cak;lak;éneGLicRtugenAry³eBlxus²Kña nigfaetivartuverbiry³eblcak;lak;b:unñan edim,iefvi dmeniretacittitamgkñúgknøgenah. mann½yfa eyigrtuvdwgminemnrkan;ettitamgbitr)akdén eglicrtuget b:uenþeyigk¾rtuvdwgpgedrbim:um:g; ma:s ry³ebl Nigel,Ón éneglicrtug. kñúgqñam97 elak Werner Heisenberg )anbgðajbiemkanickg;ticedlfa 5 vamingacdwgbikarekiteligdmnalkñacamyypabd¾cak;lak;tamgtitamg nigel,ónénpakl itducca eglicrtug)anet. ekalkarn_pabmincak;lak rbs; HEISENBERG KWCaTMnak;TMngEdl 4 elak Schrödinger TTYl)anBanrgVan;NUEblEpñkrUbviTüakñúgqñaM933 smrab;rubmnþrlkénemkanic kg;ticrbs;kat;. 5 elak Heisenberg QñHrgVan;rgVan;NUEblkñúgqñaM97 smrab;rubmnþma:rtis-bickniténemkanic kg;ticrbs;kat;. rubmnþtamgbirpþl;lt plduckñaebhbit. 7-

23 faplkunénpabmincak;lak;kñúgtitamg nigpabmincak;lak;kñúgclna (m:as ry³ebl Nigel,Ón) énpakl i tgacmintuccag RtUvFMCag b esμi emkun Planck Ecl[ 4π et. duecñhtag Δx KWCaPaBminCak;lak;kñúgkUG½redaen x énpakl it nig υx KWCaPaBmin Cak;lak;kñúgel,ÓnkñúgTisedA x eyig)an³ ( x) (m υ x ) h 4π mantmnak;tmngrsedogkñakñúgtiseda y nig z. ekalkarn_pabmincak;lak;ecgfa ebigñkdwgbititamg Δx Δ y nig Δz kan;ettuc kan;etcak;lak; enahgñkdwgbim:um:g;énpakl it Δp x Δp y nig Δpz kan;etfm kan;etminsuvc,as;. müa:getot ebisincagñkdwgbititamgpakl it kan;etc,s; enahgñkmingacdwgfavakmbugpøas;tietanaet. emkanickg;ticmingacegayeyigbib NnaBIeGLicRtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsn)aneTenAeBl vakmbugmanclnakñúgknøgrbs;va. GIVEdleyIgGaceFIV)anKWkarTsSn_TaytamEbbsßitiGMBITItaMg eglicrtugkñúggatum. ]TahrN_ eyiggacttyl)anrbu)ab ÍlIeténkarrkeXIjeGLicRtugenA cmnuccak;lak;myykñúggatumgiurduesn. etahbicaeyigmingacdwgfa eglicrtugnwgenatitamgna Cak;lak;enAry³eBlNamYy EteyIgGacdwgfa eglicrtugtmngca b mintmngca enakenøg enh. B½t manbipakl itkñúgkmritfamblnamyy ducca eglicrtugkñúggatummyy KWman kensam b GnuKmn_KNitviTüamYy EdleKehAfa GnuKmn_rlk nigsmkal;edaygksrrkicpsúi ψ. GnuKmn_rlkTTYl)anedaykaredaHRsaysmIkaremkanickg;Tic smikar Schrödinger. kaer:rbs; va ψ pþl;rbu)ab ÍeténkarrkeXIjPaKl itenakñúgtmbn;énlmh. GnuKmn_rlk nigkaer:rbs;va ψ mantmélsmrab;rkb;titamgenaek,r CMuvij énvy:u. rub 6 bgðajtmél ψ smrab;eglicrtugkñúgkmritfambltabbmputéngatumgiurduesntam bnþat;myycab;epþimbiénvy:u. curcgcamfa ψ mantmélfmenaek,rénvy:u (r = 0) EdlbgðajfaeGLicRtugKWPaKeRcInTMngCaRtUvrkeXIjkñúgtMbn;enH. tmél ψ fycuhy:ag qab;rh½senaeblcmgaybiénvy:uekinelig b:uenþ ψ minedlfyrhutdl;tmélsunüet etahbica RbU)a:b ÍlIetmantMéltUcxøaMgenAtMbn;q aybiénvy:u. krnienhmann½yfa GatUmminmanRBMEdn Cak;lak;eT EdlmindUceTAnwgKMrU BohrénGatUm. 7-3

24 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum rub 6 ExSekagén ψ smrab;kmritfambl TabbMputénGatUmGIuRdUEsn. kaer:éngnukmn_rlkkw CaExSekagRcaseTAnwgcMgay r BIéNVy:U. KImIGnuvtþn¾³ vifisarsþerbi]bkrn_ ]bkrn_ftrubmirkusáúb ( Scanning Tunneling Microscopy) kñúgqñam 986 BanrgVan;NUEblEpñkrUbviTüaRtUv)anpþl;eGayrUbviTUbInak;sMrab;kargar rbs;byk ekkñúgkargpivdæmirkusáúbsmrab;emilvtßúd¾tucérkelg. rgvan;bak;knþal)anetaeli elak Ernst Ruska smrab;kargpivdæmirkusáúbeglicrtug Edl)anBiB NnaknøgmkenH. rgvan;bak;knþaletot)anpþl;etaegayelak Gerd Binnig nig Heinrich Rohrer enakenøgmnþirrsavrcav IBM kñúg Zurich RbeTs Switzerland smrab;karbegáit]bkrn_ ftrubmirkusáúbkñúgqñam 98. ]bkrn_enhgacemilexijgatum nigm:uelkuleliépþggáfaturav (rub 7). ]bkrn_ftrubmirkusáúbkwep ketaelibbaøtiénftrubemkanickg;tic EdlvaGaRs½yeTAelI karbkerbcarbu)ab ÍlIeténemkanickg;Tic. karbgðajgatumgiurduesnmaneglicrtugmyyena Ek,rRbUtugmYy (ehafa A) nigrubpabrbutugepsgetot (ehafa B) EdlenAXaøtBITI. rub 7 rubpabén]bkrn_ftrubmirkusáúbrbs; m:uelkul bg;esneliépþelah³. m:uelkul bg;esn C 6 H 6 )antermobenakñúglmdab;etog Tat;elIépÞelah³r:UdüÚm. 7-4

25 müa:getot RbsinebIeyIgRtUvpøas;TIeGLicRtugBItMbn;RbUtug A etatmbn;rbutug B enahfamblrtuvetpþl;edim,ipþac;eglicrtugbiedntmnajénrbutug A. etahbiya:gna emkanic kg;tic R)ab;eyIgBIrUbPaBxusKña. RbU)ab ÍlIeténGatUmGIuRdUEsnEdlenATItaMgq ay BIRbUtug A b:uenþek,rrbutug B KWvamantMéltUcNas; b:uenþminesμisunüet. mann½yfa eglic RtugEdlCaTUeTACarbs;RbUtug A GacrkeXIjvaenACitRbUtug B edaykμanfamblbenßmrtuv)an pþl;egayvaet. eglicrtugenhqøgbigatummyyetagatummyyepsgetot. ]bkrn_ftrubmirkusáúbpsmeligedaym úlelah³tg;esþnedlmancmnucd¾qμar Rbdab; sþg; Edl)andak;CiteTAnwgPaKsMNakEdlRtUvemIl (rub 8). ebirbdab;sþg;dak;citsmlμmetanwgpaksmnak enaheglicrtuggacqøgbirbdab;sþg;eta PaKsMNak. RbU)ab ÍlIetkñúgkrNIenHGacRtUvbegáInedayeRbIkMlaMgGKÁIsnItUcrvag]bkrN_ nigpaksmnak. eglicrtugedlqøgbi]bkrn_etapaksmnak efvi[mankarekinelignuvrgvas crnþgkáisni. TMhMcrnþenHGaRs½yeTAelIcMgayrvagRbdab;sÞg; nigpaksmnak (ducca enaeli GnuKmn_rlkénGatUmkñúgPaKsMNakEdr). edaykartrmuvcm ayenh crnþgacrtuv)anrksatmél Cak;lak;. enaeblrbdab;sþg;ftrubpaksmnak varmkilmkcit b etaq aybipaksmnakrksacrnþ egayenacal;lak; EdlGaceGayRbdab;sÞg;eFVItamrUbragÁénPaKsMNak. rub 8 ]bkrn_ftrubmirkusáúb. lmhurcrnþrvagrbdab;sþg; nigpaksmnak enaeblman kmlamggkáisnitucrvagrbdab;sþg; nigpaksmnak. esokviedlpþl;kmlamggkáisnienh TTYl crnþenh nigefivegayerbrbylkmlamggkáisnielicgáwhbisueglicrtic (z-drive) edim,irksacmgayegay enaefrrvag Rbdab;sÞg; nigpaksmnak. kmubüút½rrtuv)anbegáitkmμvifiedim,ipþl;kmlamggkáisnieta x-drive nig y- drive edim,iegayrbdab;sþg;manclnaenaeliépþpaksmnak. 7-5

26 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum Rbdab;sÞg;RtUvEtrMkilcm aytuchysniss½y ehiykarenhgacrbrbwtþeta)an eday emkanicd¾biunrbsbv. GgÁFaturwgRkamBIsUeGLicRTic (piezoelectric crystals) begáitca karkmlamggkáisni enaeblrbevgrbs;va)anerbrbyl (kalnam úlm:asiunercogenabielicg Úrft smelg). karrcasmkvijkk¾ekitmanpgedr. bmerbmrylkmlamggkáisnitucetaelicgáwhbisu eglicrtic GacbegáItCabMErbMrYlRbEvgEdlRtUvKñarbs;vatictYc. kñúgmirkusáúbenh bermbrmyl kmlamggkáisnikw)angnuvtþn¾etaelicgáwhbisueglicrticsmrab;efviva[xøi b efvi[evg. BIeRBaHRbdab; sþg;rtuv)anrbtajetaelicgáwhenahrbdab;sþg;enh)anrmkileq<ahmkcit b etaq aybipaksmnak. kñúgvifienh cm ayrvagrbdab;sþg;etanwgpaksmnakrtuv)antrmuvedaykmlamggkáisni edim,i rksacrnþcmlgegayenaefrena ebl]bkrn_ft rubpaksmnak. rub 7 bgðajbi]bkrn_mirkusáúbftrubpabrbs;m:uelkulbg;esneliépþelah³r:udüúm. (rubmnþtmrg; nigkmrum:uelkulénbg;esn C 6 H 6 )anbgðajkñúgrub 9). rubpabtamgenh GaRs½yeTAelIGnuKmn_rlkénrUbFatuEdlRtUvsikSa nigduecñh vartuvetbkerbedayrbugrbyt½ñ b:uenþbec ketsenh )anpþl;caerscnuvb tmand¾mansar³smxan;enaeliépþggáfaturwg. rub A rub B rub 9 bg;esn (A) rubbnþtmrg;. GatUmkabUnbegáItCavg;CamYyGatUmGIuRdUEsnEdl P ab;etanwggatumkabunnimyy². rub (B) karerbir)as;kmbüút½rsmrab;emilkmrum:uelkul bg;esn. 7-6

27 5 cmnynkg;tic nigg½rb Ítal;GatUm Ep ktamemkanicgkg;tic eglicrtugnimyy²kñúggatumrtuvb NnaedaycMnYnkg;TicbYn xuskña EdlbI (n, l nig m l ) smkal;[gnukmn_rlkedlpþl;rbu)ab ÍlIetsMrab;karrkeXIj eglicrtugenacmnucxus²kñúglmhr. GnuKmn_rlksMrab;eGLicRtugkñúgGatUmehAfa G½rb Ítal GatUm. G½rb Ital;GatUmpþl;rUbPaBCabrmaN edaykarb NnaBItMbn;énlMhEdlman RbU)ab ÍlIetx<s;sMrab;rkeXIjeGLicRtug. G½rb Ítal;GatUmCarUbPaBEdlmanRTg;RTaykMNt;. cmnynkg;ticti4 ( m s ) tag[lkçn³m:aej:ticéneglicrtugehafa s<in (spin). kñúgcmbukenh dmbugeyignwg siksabicmnynkg;tic bnþab;mkbig½rb Ítal;GatUm. cmnynkg;tic (Quantum Number) tméledlgacman niggtßn½ycatuetaéncmnynkg;tictamgbynrbs;eglicrtugkñúggatumman ducteta³ cmnynkg;ticem n ( Principle Quantum Number) cmnynkg;ticem CaTMhMbBa ak;bikmritfamblenaelirstab;eglicrtugnamyy. vagacman tmélvic man³,, 3.l. fambleglicrtugkñúggatumgars½yetaelitmél n. tmél n kan;ettucenahfamblkan;ettab. kñúgkrnigatumgiurduesn b GIuy:ugGatUmmaneGLicRtug EtmYydUcCa Li b + He enah + n KWCacMnYnkg;EtmYyKt;EdlkMNt;BIfamBl (Edl pþl;[edayrubmnþ Bohr )anbipaksakñúgepñk 7>3). cmebahgatumepsgetotfamblk¾gars½y etaelicmnynkg;tic l pgedr. TMhMénG½rb Ítal;k¾GaRs½ypgEdreTAelItMél n. tmél n kan;etfm enahg½rb Ítal;kan;EtFM. G½rb Ítal;Edlmankg;Tic n duckña enahmann½yfa vamanrstab;duckña. RsTab;CYnkal RtUv)ankMNt;edayGkSdUcteTA³ GkSr K L M N... n cmnynkg;ticrg l ( l CacMnYnRsTab;rg )(Angular momentum quantum no.) cmnynkg;ticrg bba ak;bitmrg;xuskñaéngrb Ítal; n NamYy. tmélrbs; l GaRs½yeTA nwgtmélrbs;cmnynkg;ticem (n). cmebahtmél n NamYy l GacmantMélcMnYnKt;BI 0 eta (n-). ]TahrN_ ebi n = => l = [0] <=> l = 0 (l man tmél ) n = => l = [0, ] <=> l = 0, l = (l man tmél ) 7-7

28 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum n = 3 => l = [0, ] <=> l = 0, l =, l = (l man 3 tmél ) n = 4 => l = [0, 3] <=> l = 0, l =, l =, l = 3 (l man 4 tmél ) tmélrbs; l CaTUeTAtagedayGkSr s, p, d, ducxagerkam³ l eqμah Grb Ítal; s p d f g h edim,ikmnt;smkal;rstab;rgmyykñúgrstab;namyy eyigsresrtméléncmnynkg;tic n smrab;rstab;enah nigp ab;etaedaygksredltagegayrstab;rgenah. ]TahrN_ p tagegayrstab;rgmyyedlmancmnynkg;tic n = nig l =. tarag tméledlgacmanéncmnynkg;ticsmrab;g½rb Ítal;GatUm rub 0 famblg½rb Ítal;énGatUmGIuRdUEsn. bnþat;smrab;rstab;nimyy²bgðaj BIcMnYn G½rb Ítal; xuskñaénrstab;rgenh. 7-8

29 3 cmnynkg;ticma:ej:tic m l ( m l CacMnYnfteGLicRtug )(Magnetic q.n.) cmnynkg;ticma:ej:tic CaTMhMbBa ak;big½rb Ítal;éntMél n nig l NamYy mann½yfa famblnigtmrg;namyyduckña b:uenþmankaredatisxuskñakñúglmh Edl m l = [-l, + l]. ]TahrN_ ebi l = 0 => m l = 0 man tmél => RsTab;rg s man ft l = => m l = {-, 0, } man 3 tmél => RsTab;rg p man 3 ft l = => m l = {-, -, 0,, } man 5 tmél => RsTab;rg d man 5 ft l = 3 => m l = {-3, -, -, 0,,, 3} man 7 tmél =>RsTab;rg f man7 ft G½rb Ítal;manTMrg;dUcKña b:uenþkaredatisxuskñakñúglmh. elisbienhetaetot G½rb Ítal;nimYy²én RsTab;rgNamYymanfamBlesμIKña. cmnamfa man l + G½rb Ítal;kñúgRsTab;rgéncMnYnkg;Tic l. 4 cmnynkg;tics<in m s (Spin q.n.) cmnynkg;tics<incatmhmbba ak;bisv½yvilrbs;eglicrtugcmuvijg½ksrbs;vakñúgftnimyy². edayftnimyy² manbireglicrtugviltamtisedapþúykña duecñhcmnynkg;tics<in s rbs;va mantméletbirb:uenñahkw S = ±½. tarag raycmnynkg;ticedlgacmansmrab;rkb; G½rb Ítal;rhUtdlRsTab;; n = 4. tméltamgenhekarbtamc,ab;edletibnwgsiksa. famblsmrab;g½rb Ítal;TaMgenH)anbgðajkñúgrUb 0 smrab;gatumgiurduesn. cmnamfa RKb;G½rb Ítal;EdlmancMnYnkg;Ticem n duckña KWmanfamBldUcKña. etahbiya:gna cmebahgatum EdlmaneGLicRtugeRcInCagmYyKWmanEtG½rb Ítal;kñúgRsTab;rgdUcKñab:ueNÑaH (smkal; eday n nig l ) EdlmanfamBldUcKña. ]TahrN_ 6 : karerbir)as;c,ab;cmnynkg;tic curbba ak;faeticmnynkg;ticnimyy²xagerkamenhkwgacekitman RtwmRtUv smrab;eglicrtugkñúggatumedrb et? RbsinebIminGacekItman curbnül;faehtugvi? (a) (b) (c) n n n, l =, m l = 0, m = + 3, l =, m l =, m =, l =, m l = 0, m = + = s = s = s 7-9

30 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum (d) n, l = 0, m l = 0, m = cmeliy = s (a) mingacekitman. cmnynkg;ticl esμietanig n. vartuvetticcag n. (b) mingacekitman. TMhM tméldac;xat éncmnynkg;tic ml (KWfatMél ml minkitsbaaø rbs;va) KWvaminGacFMCag l. (c) GacekItman. (d) mingacekitman. cmnynkg;tic m s Gacman + nig b:uenñah. lmhat; 7>7 curbnül;fa ehtugvicmnynkg;ticnimyy²xagerkamkwmingacekitmancmebahg½rb Ítal;. (a) n (b) (c) (d) n n n 0, l =, m l = 0, m = +, l = 3, m l = 0, m = 3, l =, m l = 3, m = + 3, l =, m l =, m = 0 = s = s = s = s TMrg;G½rb Ítal;GatUm ( Atomic Orbital Shapes) G½rb Ítal; s mantmrg;esvr etahbicar)ayrbu)ab ÍlIetKWGaRs½yeTAelI n. rub bgðajbir)ayrbu)ab ÍlIetsMrab;G½rb Ítal; s nig s. RsemalB Nc,as; CakEnøgEdl eglicrtugkrrtuv)anrkexij. kñúgkrnienh G½rb Ítal; s (rub eli) eglicrtug RtUv)anrkeXIjenACitéNVy:U. RsemalB NminsUvc,as;énKMlatBIéNVy:UekIneLIg bgðajfa eglicrtugrtuv)anrkexijtictycenatienah. G½rb Ítal;min)anbBa b;enacmgaykmnt;c,as;las;biénvy:uet. duecñh GatUmmanKMlat minkmnt; b "TMhM ". eyiggacvas; " TMhM " éng½rb Ítal;edayviFIKMnUsvg;dac;² (contour) 99% (EsVr)anbgðajedayKMnUsbnÞat;dac;² ). G½rb Ítal; s xusbig½rb Ítal; s. ducbgðajkñúgrub xagsþam eglicrtugkñúg G½rb Ítal; s KWTMngCaRtUv)anrkeXIjkñúgtMbn;BIr myyciténvy:u nig myyetotenakñúg RsTab;EsVrCitéNVy:U (eglicrtugkwtmngcaenatienh). KMnUsCargVg;dac;² 99% bgðajfa G½rb Ítal; s KWFMCagG½rb Ítal; s. 7-30

31 düarkamenhmingacbgðajcartg;rtayvimartbiéng½rb Ítal;GatUm s nig s )anet. rub bgðajkmnuscmnitedlmanlkç<n³rbesircagkñúgkarbgðajbirtg;rtayvimartbienh. rub bgðajtmbn;kat;exvgkñatmnag [r)ayrbu)ab ÍlIetsMrab;G½rb Ítal; s. kñúg G½rb Ítal; s r)ayrbu)ab ÍlIetKWFMbMputCit etanigénvy:u. kñúgg½rb Ítal; s KWeRcIn bmputkñúgrstab;esvrcitetanigénvy:u. smkal;{tmh}efobéng½rb Ítal;)anbgðajeda y KMnUsnUsCargVg;dac;² 99%. rub KMnUscMNitEdlbgðajBI TMrgEsVrénG½rb Ítal; s. kñúgkmnustamg BIrenHG½rb Ítal;nimYy² myycmenk RtUv)ankat;edIm,ibgðajBIr)ayeGLicR tugéng½rb Ítal;. 7-3

32 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum mang½rb Ítal; p kñúgrstab;rg p nimyy². RKb;G½rb Ítal; p manrtg;rtayrkwhduc²kña (EpñkBkmUlTaMgBIr)anteRmobtambnÞat;Rtg;CamYynigéNVy:UrvagEpñkBkmUlTaMgBIr) b:uenþ xuskñakñúgkaredatiskñúglmhrbs;va. edaysaretg½tb Ítal;TaMgbIfitenAelImMuCab;KñaeTAvij etamk eyiggacbgðajg½rb Ítal;nImYy²Edl)anedATistamkUG½redayenxusKñaénG½kS (rub 3). eyigsmkal;g½rb Ítal;TaMgenHeday p x, p y nig pz. G½rb Ítal; p x manrbu)ab Í lieteglicrtugrbs;vafmbmputtambenþayg½ks x G½rb Ítal; p y tambenþayg½ks y nig G½rb Ítal; p z tambenþayg½ks z. G½rb Ítal; p epsgetotducca 3p CaTUeTAman RTg;RTaydUcKñaenH EdlmanPaBxusKñalMGitEdlGaRs½yelItMél n. eyignwgbipaksa RTg;RTayG½rb Ítal; s nig p mþgetotkñúgcmbukti0edltak;tgnwgsm<½n KImI. mang½rb Ítal; d cmnynr)am EdlmanRTg;RTaysaMujaMuCagG½rb Ítal; s nig p. G½rb Ítal;TaMg enh)anbgðajkñúgrub 3. rub 3 G½rb Ítal ; p. (A) r)ayeglicrtugkñúgg½rb Ítal; p x. kt;smkal;favaman EpñkBkmUlTaMgBIrenAtambnÞat;Rtg;G½kS x. (B) karedatiséng½rb Ítal; p TaMgbI. KMnUs TaMgenHEtgEt)aneRbIedIm,IB NnaTMrg;TUeTA nigkaredatiséng½rb Ítal;TaMgenH b:uenþekmin)an BiB NnalMGitGMBIr)ayeGLicRtugdUc)anbgðajkñúgrUb (A). 7-3

33 rub 4 G½rb Ítal; 3d TaMgR)aM. G½rb Ítal;TaMgenH)antagedaysnÞsSn_dUcCaenAkñúg d xy EdlGFib,ayBIlkçN³KNitviTüarbs;va. ***************************************** KImIGnuvtþ FatuEdlmansarsMxan GIuRdUEsn³ \nþn³énstvtsti b? duceyig)andwgehiy GatUmGIuRdUEsn)ankøayCaKMrUsMrab;TMrg;énGatUm. etahbicaya:g Nak¾eday GIuRdUEsnCasarFatuEdlmantYnaTId¾sMxan;dUcFatudéTeTotkñúgmuxviC akimi. CaTUeTA GIuRdUEsnCa]s½μnKμanB N Kμankøin EdlpSMeLIgBIm:UelKulGIuRdUEsn H. RbEhl 40% éngiurduesnedlpliteligcalkçn³banic kmμrtuv)anerbiedim,iplitgam:ujak; nigbriman RbEhlKñaenHRtUv)aneRbIkñúgbnSúT erbgkat. b:uenþkñúgeblgnakt GIuRdUEsnGacRtUv)aneRbICa \nþn³. GIuRdUEsnrav H RtUv)aneKeBjniymeRbICa\nÞn³kñúgkaMRCYc (rocket) (rub 7.5). kareqhkñúgmyyrkamrbs;va begáitkmeda)anercincagcmehh\nþn³epsg²etot. kñúgsnæanca]s½μn rbs;va GIuRdUEsnGackøayCa\nÞn³EdleBjniymsMrab;stvtSTIenH. enaeblgiurduesn eqhkñúgxül; vabegáit)ancatwk. duecñh kardutgiurduesncmnys\nþn³pusiul détetot (]s½μnfmμ Cati erbgkat nigfüúg) manplrbeyacn_d¾smxan;. 7-33

34 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum cmehh\nþn³pusiulkwcarbpbénkarbmbulbrisßan. epøóggasiut Edl)anbgámhnþraydl; brisßan RtUv)aneKeCOfaKWCalT pledltak;tgetanwgcmehhfüúg nigerbgkat. \nþn³tamgenh pþúksmasfatus<an;f½redleqh[plcas<an;f½rdiguksiut EdlmanRbtikmμkñúgxül;esImbgá CaGasIuts ulpyric EdlCaPaKpSMcMbgénePøógGasIut. kabundiguksiutedlcaplitpl d¾smxan;kñúgcmehh\nþn³pusiul k¾gaccarbpbcmbgénfatubmbul. PaKryénkabUnDIGuksIutkñúg briyakasmankarekineligcalmdab; cab;tamgbikardut\nþn³pusiulya:gercin)ancab;epþimenacug stvtsti9. Gakas FatuviTUeCOCak;fakMeNInkabUnDIGuksIutkñúgbriyakasKWbgá\T iblpþh ébtg (greenhouse effect).kmeninkmhab;énkabundiguksiutmanlkçn³duccakba k;elipþh ébtgedlrksafamblkmeda edaysmrub nigkarbeba jkamrsμigamgrhvarkhmrtlb;etaépþepndi nigrbehlcakarch\t ibly:agxøamgkøaetaeligakasfatu. rub 5 FugpÞúkGIuRdUEsnrav. GIuRdUEsnravRtUv)aneRbICa\nÞn³kaMRCYc karrtytbinitükarbeba jkabundiguksiutetakñúgbriyakaskwcakargard¾lm)ak b:uenþcmeliy gayet KwfaeyIgRtUvbEgVreTAeRbIfamBlGatUmGIuRdUEsnCMnYsvij. Kñúgesdækic GIuRdUEsn GIuRdUEsnnwgkøayCaRbPBfamBleRbIR)as;d¾sMxan;. ]TahrN_ yanynþgacrtuv)anekerb edim,ierbigiurduesncmnysvij. etahbicaya:gnak¾eday GIuRdUEsnmin EmnCaRbPBfamBledImeT. vamanlkçn³smrmü nigminbmbulbrisßan b:uenþvanwgrtuvetcmraj;bi RbPBfamBlepSg²eTot. 7-34

35 GIuRdUkabYnigTwk\LÚvenHCaRbPBcMbgénGIuRdUEsn. kñúglmnambgácmhaytwkeligvij cmhaytwk niggiurdukaby)anmkbi]sμ½nfmμcati nigerbgkatmangmebicamyykñaenasitunðpab nig smbafx<s;cmebahmuxkatalikrniekl[plcakabunm:unuguksiut niggiurduesn. ]TahrN_ C3H 8 Ni (g) + 3 O 3CO(g) + 7 H (g) H GIuRdUkabUnpþl;famBlsMrab;karplitGIuRdUEsn. GIuRdUEsnGacRtUv)aneKplitBIFüÚg pgedredayrbtikmμ Twk-]sμ½n EdlminRtUv)aneKeRbICalkçN³BaNiC kmμetotet b:uenþvaman lkçn³smxan;eligvij enaebl]sμ½nfmμcati nigerbgkateqaeligéfø. kñúgrbtikmμenh cmhaytwkrtuv)anekdak;egayqøgkat;füúgedlkmbugeqhekþaeligrkhm. C(s) + H O(g) CO(g) + H (g) RbtikmμeGayplCal,ay]sμ½nGIuRdUEsnCamYykabUnm:UNUGuksIut. L,ayEbbenHRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IplitsmasFatusrIragÁepSg² b:uenþedim,ittyl)angiurduesnsut ekrtuvetpþac;kabunm:unuguksiutecj. TI kabunm:unuguksiutmanrbtikmμcamyycmhaytwkkñúg vttmankatalikredim,iegayplcakabundiguksiut niggiurduesnbenßmetot. CO(g) + H O(g) CO (g) + H (g) bnþab;mk kabundiguksiutrtuv)anpþac;ecjedaykarrmlayvakñúgsuluysüúg)as. kalnadutkmeda suluysüúgenh beba jkabundiguksiutekitelig Edlbc úb,nñenh kabun DIGuksIutRtUv)aneKeyabk b beba jetakñúgbriyakal. etahbicaya:gnak¾eday ebieragcrk GIuRdUEsnmanTItaMgEk,rsmuRT enahkabundiguksiutgacrtuv)anbba Úly:ageRCAeTAkñúgTwksmuRT. GIuRdUEsnGacTTYl)anedaypÞal;edaykarbMEbkBITwkedayeRbIfamBl. ]TahrN_ crnþgkáisnibieragcrkfamblnuyekøeg r b BIfamBlEdlTTYl)anBIBnøWRBHGaTitüRtUv)aneRbI R)as;CaRbPBfamBledIm,IbMEbkTwkedayviFIGKÁIsnIviPaK (rub 6). eglicrtulirtducca GasIuts ulpyric b b:utasüúmgiurduksiutedl)anbenßmetaelitwkedim,iefvicaggáfatucmlg nigeglicrtutrtuv)anrclk;etakñúgtwk ]sμ½nguksiuesnrtg RbmUl ykenaeglicrtugvic man nig]sμ½ngiurduesnrtgykenaeglicrtutgvic man. smikarsarubkw³ H O (l) H(g) + O (g) GñkRsavRCavk¾)anBinitüemIlBIRbtikmμpUtUKImI (RbtikmμTak;TgnwgBnøW) EdleRbIfamBl RBHGaTitü edim,ibmelgtwkedaypþal;etacaguksiuesn niggiurduesn. CakarBit ek)anrkexij lmnamenhedlerbibnøwrbhgatitümanrbsit PaBCageragcRkGKÁIsnI ( green plant) EdlbMElg 7-35

36 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum famblrbhgatitüetacafamblkimi. etahbicaya:gnak¾eday karbegáitgiurduesnedayerbibnøw RBHGaTitüenAmankarRbkYtRbECgtMél. smnyrsmrab;karsiksa > ehtugvi)ancagiurduesnmansar³smxan;smrab;erbica\nþn³kñúgkamrcyc? etivamanplrbeyacn_gvi cmebah brisßankalnaekerbigiurduesnca\nþn³? >etigivetacaepøóggasiut?etikardut\nþn³pusiulbgáepøóggasiuty:agduemþc? 3>GIVeTACa\T ibl Greenhouse (pþhefvibikba k;ébtg)? ehtugiv)ancagakasfatuvitukitfakar dut\nþn³pusiulbgá[man\t ibl Greenhouse? 4>etIBaküesdækic GIuRdUEsnmann½yy:agdUemþc? 5>KImIviTU Cavendish CnCatiGg;eKøs)anrkeXIjGIuRdUEsnkñúgqñaM799. Kat;TegVIvaeday Rbtikmμelah³epSg²CamYyGasIutTaMgLay. sresrsmikarkimismrab;tegvigiurduesnbielah³ sgá½sicamyygasiutkørirdic. 6>GIuRdUEsn)anerobcMeLIgBI]sμ½nFmμCatiedayRbtikmμvaCamYycMhayTwk (karbegáitcmhay TwkeLIgvij). ]sμ½nfmμcatismxan;kwemtan. sresrrbtikmμkimismrab;tegvigiurduesnbicmhay TwkCamYyemtan. 7>cUrBnül;ehtudUemþc)anCaGIuRdUEsnsuT RtUv)anTegVIeLIgBIFüÚgGus (FüÚg). sresrsmikar KImItagRbtikmμenH. 8>etIfamBlRBHGaTitü)anbMElgeTACaGIuRdUEsny:agdUemþc? 7-36

37 rub 6 GKÁIsnIviPaKTwk. kt;smkal;fa madgiueduesnedl)anbeba jenaeglicrtutgvic man manbirdgercincagmadguksiuesnedl)anbeba jenaeglicrtutvic manedlrtuvetanwg rubmnþ H O. ************************************* TMrg;eGLicRtUnicénGatUm ( Electronic structure of Atoms) kñúgcmbukenh eyigrkexijfa eglicrtugkñúggatummancmnynkg;ticbynkw n, l, m l nig m s culrymcamyyva. cmnynkg;ticbidmbugmanlkçn³g½rb Ítal;EdlBiB NnaBIdMbn;niglMhEdl eglicrtugkwpakercintmngcartuv)anrkexij eyigebalfaeglicrtug " tamgti " G½rb Ítal;enH. cmnynkg;tics<in m s BiB NnaBIkartMrg;Tiss<IneGLicRtug. eyignwgbipaksafa eglicrtug )anebgeckcmenamg½rb Ítal;GacRbRBwtþeTAy:agdUemþc? 6 s<ineglicrtugnigekalkarn¾dac;edayelk PAULI Otto Stern nig Walther Gerlach CaGñk)anGegátelIkdMbUgeTAelIs<IneGLicRtug manlkçn³emedkkñúgqñam 9. ek[bnøwcamg culgatumr)ak;edaypþal;etakñúgednénbøg; emedkbiess. BiesaFn¾dUcKñaGaceFVI)an CamYy GatUmGIuRdUEsn. BnøWénGatUmGIuRdUEsnKW)an 7-37

38 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum bmebketacabiredayednm:aejtic Bak;kNþal éngatumkw ekagkñúgtisedamyynigbak;knþal etotekagkñúgtisedamyyepsgetot (emilrub 7). CakarBitEdlGatUm)anCH\T ibleday emedkkñúgtibiesafn¾bgðajfa xøünrbs;ekgmebiducemedk. BnøWénGatUmGIuRdUEsnKWbMEbkeTACaBIr BIeRBaHeGLicRtugkñúgGatUmRbRBwtþeTAdUcCa kmetcemedkcamyykartmrg;tisedlgacmanetbirkt;. kñúggnuvtþn¾eglicrtuggmebiducca vaca)al;éns<inedlmanbnþúk (rub 8) nig ducbnþúkcrnþgkáisni vanigbegáitednm:aejtic. etahbicas<ineglicrtugkwcaekalbmngsmrab;kmnt;etaelikar tmrg;tisedlgacrbrbwtþeta)an éng½kss<in. lt plénkartmrg;tiséns<inm:aejticttylrab;rgetaelicmnynkg;tic s<in ms = + nig m s =. rub 7 karbiesafrbs; Stern-Gerlach. düarkambgðajkarbiesafedayerbigatumgiurduesn (gayrsylkñúgkarbkrsaytamrtwsþi) etahbicabiesafn¾dmbug)anerbigatumr)ak;. BnøWénGatUm GIuRdUEsn (bgðajb Nexov) KWbMEbkeTACaBIredayEdnm:aejTicmindUcKña. BnøWmYymanpÞúk GatUmnImYy²CamYyeGLicRtug man m s = + cmenkepsgetotmanpþúkgatumedlman eglicrtugcamyy m s = -. rubsnæaneglicrtugnigdüarkamg½rb Ítal; (Electron Configurations and Orbital Diagrams) rubsnæaneglicrtugéngatumkwcakarebgeckedayepñkcmenaméneglicrtugedlgac manrstab;rg. KW)anGFib,ayedaykarkMNt; Edl)aneFVICataragnimitþsBaaØRsTab;rgmYy bnþab; BIRsTab;rgepSgeTot. nimitþsbaaønimyy² mannitssnþn¾enaeliepñkxageqvgr)ab;bicmnyn eglicrtugkñúgrstab;rg. ]TahrN¾ rubsnæanéngatum licum (cmnyngatumesμi 3) Edlman 7-38

39 eglicrtugbirkñúgrstab;rg s nigmyyeglicrtugetotkñúgrstab;rg s KWRtUv)ansresrCa s. s karsmkal;smrab;rubsnæanr)ab;eyigbicmnyneglicrtugkñúgrstab;rgnimyy² b:uenþeyig erbidüarkamedim,i bgðajetig½rb Ítal;énRsTab;rgtaMgTIedayeGLicRtugy:agdUcemþc?enHehAfa düarkamg½rb Ítal;. duccakñúg düarkam G½rb Ítal;)antagedayrgVg;. RkumnIimYy² éng½rb Ítal; kñúgrstab;rg KW)ansMKal;edaykarkMNt;RsTab;rgrbs;va. eglicrtugkñúg G½rb Ítal;)an bgðajedayrbyj cmnucrbyjeq<ahetaelikalna m s = + nigcuh erkam kalna m s = -. s s p G½rb Ítal;düaRkambgðajBITMrg;eGLicRtUnicénGatUmEdlkñúgenaHmaneGLicRtugBIr kúñúgrstab;rg s b G½rb Ítal; ( eglicrtugmyycamyy m s = + ÉmYyeTotCamYy m s = - s ( m = + s = - m s s s p, ) ehiyeglicrtugmyyetotkñúgrstab;rg p ( m = + s. )eglicrtugbirkñúgrstab;rg ). rubsnæaneglicrtugkw rub 8 tmnag[s<ineglicrtug. s<inbirgactmrg;tiskw)anbgðajedaykmru. tamry³karbmelg TisedAs<In KWpþl;[dUcbgðajedayRBYjFMelIG½kSs<In. eglicrtugrbrbwtþetaducdmuemedktuc² ducbgðajkñúgrub. 7-39

40 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum ekalkarn¾dac;edayelk Pauli ( Pauli Exclusion Principle) minemnrkb;kartermobgacbegáit)anéneglicrtugcmenamg½rb Ítal;énGatUmGacCaPa BrUb. ekalkarn¾dac;edayelk Pauli Edl)aneFVIkarGegátBiesaFn¾ KWCac,ab;EføgfaKμan eglicrtugbirenakñúggatum EtmYyGacmancMnYnkg;TicbYndUcKña. ebieglicrtugmyykñúggatum mancmnynkg;tic n =, l = 0, ml = 0 nig m s = + KμaneGLicRtugepSgeTotGacmancMnYnkg;TicbYndUcKña. ekgacniyaym:üagetotfa GñkminGac CMnYseGLicRtugBIrCamYynigtMéldUcKñaén m s kñúgmyyg½rb Ítal; s. G½rb Ítal;düaRkammintMNag[lT PaBén kartermobeglicrtug. s BIeRBaHmanEttMélBIrEdlGacsMrab; m s nigg½rb Ítal;minGacTTYlykeGLicRtugeRcInCagBIr ehiy bnþab;mkrbsinebimanet eglicrtugbirmancmnyns<inkg;ticxuskña. kñúgdüarkamg½rb Ítal; G½rb Ítal;CamYyeGLic RtugBIrRtUv)ansresrCamYycMnucRBYjkñúgTisedApÞúyKña. eglicrtugbirmans<inpþúykña. GñkGaceXIjfaRsTab;rgnImYy²TTYlGtibrimaBIreGLicRtugeRBaHfa cmnyn eglicrtugercingars½yetaelicmnyng½rb Ítal;kñúgRsTab;rg. duecñhrstab;rg p Edlman G½rb Ítal;bI (CamYy m l = nig +) GacTTYlGtibrimaR)aMmYyeGLicRtug. cmnyngtibrima éneglicrtugkñúgrstab;rgepsgkñanwgbgðajkñúgtaragxagerkam³ RsTab;rg cmnyng½rb Ítal; cmnyngtibrimaéneglicrtug s ( l = 0) p ( l = ) 3 6 d ( l = ) 5 0 f ( l = 3) 7 4 ]TahrN¾ 7³ Gnuvtþn¾eTAelIeKalkarN¾dac;edayElkrbs; Pauli etig½rb Ítal;düaRkam b rubsnæaneglicrtugnaxøhedlgacman nig mingacmantamekal karn¾dac;edayelkrbs; Pauli? curbnül;? (a) (b) s s p s s p 7-40

41 (c) s s p (d) s 3 s 7 (e) s s p (f) s s p 3s 3p 3d 4s cmeliy³ (a) düarkamg½rb Ítal;Gacman (b) düarkamg½rb Ítal;minGacman maneglicrtugbikñúgg½rb Ítal; s (c) düarkamg½rb Ítal;minGacman maneglicrtugbirkñúgg½rb Ítal; p CamYys<IndUcKña (d) mingacmanrubsnæaneglicrtug maneglicrtugbikñúgrstab;rg s (G½rb Ítal;mYy) (e) mingacmanrubsnæaneglicrtug maneglicrtugr)ambirkñúgrstab;rg p(edlgacttyl ykeglicrtug)anetr)ammyy) (f) Gacman kt;smkal;farstab;rg 3d GacTTYlykeGLicRtugGtibrimarhUtdl;db; lmhat;ti 8 curemildüarkamg½rb Ítal; nigrubsnæaneglicrtugducteta. etinaxøhedl GacmannigNaxøHminGacmanGnuvtþn¾tameKalkarN¾dac;edayElkrbs; Pauli? curbnül;? (a) (b) s s p s s p (c) (d) (e) (f) 4 ss p 4 ss p s s p 3s 3p 3d ****************************************************** 7-4

42 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum KImIGnuvtþn¾³ vifiedayerbi]bkrn¾ (Instrumental Methods) er:sung;nuyekøeg rm:aejtic (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance NMR) GñkeTIbEt)aneXIjfaeGLicRtugmans<InehIyEdlCalT plrbrbwtþetaducdmuemedk. RbUtug nig NWRtugRbhak;RbEhlKñamans<In. duecñh GaRs½yeTAelIkarteRmobénRbUtug nig NWRtug énvy:ukyretmans<in. énvy:ucamyys<innwgmanskmμpabduccabnþhemedk Rbhak;RbEhlKña etanigeglicrtug etahcavamantmhmtuc CageRcIndgk¾eday. ]TahrN¾ énvy:ucamyy nig s<inkwgiurduesn- (RbUtug) kabun-3 (b:uenþ kabun-smbur kñúgénvy:u énkabun Kμans<In) nig PøúyGrY-9. etahbica nuyekøeg rm:aejtickwtuccageglicrtug CamYynigkareRbI]bkrN¾RtwmRtUv KWgayeXIjehIykñúgTMrg;BitKWcamUldæanéner:sUNg;nuyekøEG rm:aejtic (NMR) s,icrtusáúbbi KWCaviFIsaRsþmYyd¾mansar³sMxan;sMrab;kMNt;TMrg;m:UelKul. vagacbegáitcamuldæa én]bkrn¾ kñúgevc sarssmrab;kmnt;erakvinicä½yénrub PaBer:sUNg;m:aejTic b NMR GacemIleXIj RbsinebIGñkbBaa k;birbutug. duceglicrtugedrrbutugmansnæans<inbir. enacmebahmux Ednm:aejTicsNæans<InTaMgenHmanfamBldUcKña b:uenþkñúgednm:aejticxøamg (Edn xagerka) vamanfamblxuskña. snæan EdlkñúgenaHRbUtugEdlmanlkçN³emEdk )antmrg;cacyrcamyyednxagerka duecñhb:ulxagt,úgénemedkrbutugebrqmmuxcamyyb:ulxagecigénemedkxagerka nwgman fambltabcag. snæanedlkñúg enahemedkrbutug)anrtlb;mk 80 CamYyb:Ulxag o t,úgrbqmmuxcamyyb:ulxagt,úgrbs;vaénemedkxagerka nwgmanfamblx<s;cag. \LÚvebI RbUtugkñúgsNæans<InTabCagKW)anbBaa MgBnøWCamYyrlkeGLicRtUm:aejTic EdlmaneRhVkg; smrsb(kñúgenahrbutugmanfamblesμietanigpabxuskñakñúgfamblkñúgsnæans<in) RbUtugnwg efvi[erbrbyletaelisnæans<inx<s;cag. erhvkg;rtuv)anrsubedayrbutuggars½yetaelitmhmén Ednm:aejTic. cmebahemedk)nerbikñúg]bkrn¾enh BnøWlatsn wgenakñúglmdab;erhvkg;rlk. erhvkg;edlniymerbikw 60MHz nig 00MHz EdlsßitkñúgeRhVkg;tMbn;eRhVkg;Gacman rhutdl; 600MHz. 7-4

43 rub 9 rubpaber:sung;m:aejtic. kñúgk,algñkcm WKWRtUv)anCMnYsedayemEdkFMCag ehiy)anbinitü GegátedayviTüúCIbcr. karcmlgs<inrbutugbegáinetakarbnsayrlkvitüúedlgac eday]bkrn¾ eglicrtunic nig bmelgedaykmbüút½retatmhmrub PaB BIrénkMBs;épÞPaKrbs;xYrk,al. rub 30 bgðajbis<ic NMR sambaø. vaekiteligbipaksmnakkñúgednénemedk GKÁIsnIERbRbYlehIyCitkak;BIrmYyrlkviTüúCa]bkrN¾bBa Ún nig myyetotcakak;bbaär Ca]bkrN¾TTYleTAelIkak;]bkrN¾bBa Ún (GaRs½ydUecñH ]bkrn¾ttylnwgmincab;yk sbaaøbi]bkrn¾bba Ún). ]bmafa rlkkamrsμibba Ún 00MHz. ebipaksmnak RsUbrlk vitüútamgenh RbUtugnwgrgkarbBa ÚnBIsNæans<InTabeTAsNæans<Inx<s;Cag. kalnarbutug sßitkñúgsnæanfamblx<s;cag vamantmenar)at;bg;fambl efvidmenirrtlb;etasnæans<in TabCag ehiycamgbnøwcmhanrlkvitüú00-mhz. duecñh PaKsMNakmanGMeBIdUc Ca]bkrN¾bBa Ún b:uenþmyycamyykak;kñúgtisedaepsg²kña duecñhsbaaøgacemilexij)an eday]bkrn¾kak;ttyl. 7-43

44 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum rub 30 karbiesafn¾etaelier:sung;nuyekøegrm:aejtic. PaKsMNak)andak;cUleTAkñúgEdn m:aejticedlgacpøas;bþúr)anedaycrnþgkáisniepsg²kñakñúgkak;emedk. kalnafambl xuskña énsnæans<innuyekøeg rfanaetaelierhvkg;bba ÚnCMhanrlkEdl)anRsUb. kalnas<in nuyekøeg refvidmenirrtlb;etanigpabedimrlkvitüú)anbeba jkñúgtisedaxuskña ehiymyycmnyn GacemIleXIjeday]bkrN¾kak;TTYl. BIeRBaH]bkrN¾kak;TTYlKWkat;EkgeTA nig]bkrn¾ kak;ttyl vamingacemilexijsbaaøttyl b:uenþgacexijbipaksmnak. CaTUeTA PaKsMNaknwgminRsUbenAÉeRhVkg;)aneRCIserIs. b:uenþ GñkGacbþÚrfa mblxus²kñarvag snæans<in ehiiygars½yduecñh erhvkg; Edl)anRsUbedayPaKsMNak efvi[mankmenin b tmhytmhménednm:a ejticxagerkaedayerbikak;tuccagenaelirtg;rtay b:ulemedk. efviduecñh GñkGac kñúgrbsit PaB " sur " PaKsMNak b "er:sung;" CamYyeRhVkg; bba Ún. (PaBqøas;Kña ]bkrn¾tmenibcaercin xuskñaerhvkg;bba ÚnedIm,I TTYl)aner:sUNg;). edaysarrbutugnimyy²kñúgsarfatukwbt½ CMuvijedayeGLicRtugEdlmanEdnm:aejTic pþal;rbs;ek m:aejticcmuvijénrbutuggars½ybnþicbnþücetaelietigatumgvicgsm<n½ etaeliva. Ednm:aejTicxageRkARtUvkaredIm,I nams<inrbutugetaer:sung;camyykarbeba jbnøw 00-MHz nwgmanrbeptsm<½n KImIxusKña². rub 3 bgðajdmenahrsays,ic NMRTab énegtanul EdlmanTMrg;m:UelKul³ H H H O C C H H H 7-44

45 kt;smkal;fa RbUtugkñúgGatUmGIuRdUEsncgsm<n½ etanigguksiuesn (H-O-) RsUbenA Ednm:aejTicTabCagGatUmGIuRdUEsncgsm<½n CamYyGatUmkabUnTaMgenaH. müa:getot manpab xuskñatictycrvagma:ejtic CMuvijGMBIéNVy:UGIuRdUEsnelIRkum -CH - ehiynigrkum -CH 3. cugbba b;tmbn;erkambic (peak) smrubnimyy²kwsmamartetanigcmnyngatumgiurduesn énrbept enah. duecñh dmbn;ttylbnþúksmrab;bicén HO, CH nig CH 3 enakñúgsmamart ::3. enhcaepñkmyyénb tmanedlgacrbmul)anbis,ic NMRénsaFatu. b:uenþvaminrkb;rkan; edim,i bgðajbikarerbir)as; NMR enakñúgkarkmnt;tmrg;. rub 3 s,ic NMR énegtanul CH 3 CH OH (dmenahrsaytab). kt;smkal;fabic smrab;rbutugkñú PaBxusKñaénkarcgsm<½n KImICMuvij. dmbn;erkambicnimyy²smamartetanigcmnynrbutugkñúgsm<½n CMuvij nimyy². enadmenahrsayx<s;cagedlgacmancamyynig]bkrn¾tmenib BickNþalnigBicxagsþaMéd bmebketacabicercinedaysaretkarrbtajkñarvags<inrbutug.karbmebktamgenhpþl;[ nuvb tman ercingmbitmrg;m:uelkul. 7 karbegáitekalkarn¾nigtaragxyb (Building-up Principle and Periodic Table) RKb;GatUmmancMnYnminkMNt;énrUbsNæaneGLicRtugEdlGacman. rubsnæantak;tg CamYykMritfamBlTabénGatUmEdlFanaeTAelIsNæancln³karkg;TicehAfa PaBedIm (ground state). rubsnæanepsgetotfanaetaeli PaBlMejac (excited state) Tak;Tgnig kmritfamblepsgetotedlmanlkçn³tabbmput. ]Ta. snæannwgéngatumsudüúm KW)ansÁal; 7-45

46 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum BIkarBiesaFEdlmanrUbsNæaneGLicRtug 6 s s p 3s. rubsnæaneglicrtugtmnag CaPaBlMejacénGatUmsUdüÚm. lkçn³kimiéngatumkwtak;tgcadmbugetanwgrubsnæaneglicrtugénpabedimrbs;va. tarag.raynam karkmnt;edaybiesafn¾nuvrubsnæaneglicrtugpabediméngatum Z = eta Z = 36. ekalkarn¾karkekit (Building-up Principle) ( ekalkarn¾ Aufbau ) rubsnæanpakercinkñúgtarag GacRtUv)anBnül;edayeKalkarN¾karkekIt (b Aufbau Principle) CaKMerag)aneRbIedIm,IbegáItrUbsNæaneGLicRtug énpabediméngatum edaykarbmebjrstab;rgcabnþbnþab;camyy eglicrtugkñúgkartermobcak;lak; (lmdab;én karbegáitelig). GnuelamtameKalkarN¾enHGñkTTYl)anrUbsNæaneGLicRtugénGatUm edaykarbmebjrstab;rgcabnþbnþab;kñúglmdab;ducteta (lmdab;énkarbegáitelig) : s,s, p,3s,3 p,4s,3d,4 p,5s,4d,5 p,6s,4 f,5d,6 p,7s, 5 f. enhcalmdab;begáiteligvij rubsnæaneglicrtugkmnt;)antambiesafn¾ (mankrnielikelgmyycmnyn EdleyIgnwg BiPakSabnÞab;). tarag rubsnæaneglicrtugpabediméngatum Z = = 36* 7-46

47 GñkmincaM)ac;eFVIkarcgcaMkarteRmobenH. ducgñknwgexijgñkgacnwg TTYl)anTMrg;va BItaragxYb. munnigeyiggfib,ay etirtuvefviducenhy:agduemþceyigrtuvkar BiPakSa lmdab;énkarbegáitelig nig exijfaetirubeglicrtugxuskñaduc EdleyIgkMBugeFVItam taragxyb. lmdab;énkarbegáiteligfanasmrab;epñkcaercinedim,ibegáinfamblénrstab;rg. Gñk GacnwgcUlrYmCamYyva. edaykarbmebjg½rb Ítal;énfamBlTabbMputdMbUg GñkEtgEtTTYl famblsarubtabbmput (PaBedim) éngatum. ehacafμifambléng½rb Ítal;GaRs½yEtmYyKt; elicmnynkg;tic n nig l. (famblrbs;gatumgiurduesnduecñhgars½yetetaeli n ). G½rb Ítal;EdlmancMnYn n nig l duckñab:uenþman ml xuskñaenahmang½rb Ítal;xusKñaénRsTab;rg duckñaenahmanfamblduckña. famblgars½ycacmbgetaeli n CamYynigkMeNIttMél rbs;va. duecñh G½rb Ítal; 3s manfamblfmcagg½rb Ítal; s edaysartmél n FMCag. elikelggatum GIuRdUEsnfamBlG½rb Ítal;CamYycMnYn n ekineligduckñartuvkñanigcmnynkg;tic l. G½rb Ítal; 3p manfambltictyccagbi dgéng½rb Ítal; 3s erbah l mantmélfmcag. G½rb Ítal; Edlman fambltabbmputkw s bnþab;mkx<s;cagmþgkw s nig p bnþab;mk s nig 3p. lmdab; énrstab;rgtamgenhtamry³fambl BI s eta 3p etatamkarbegáit eligtamlmdab;duc Edl)ankt;RtakñúgtaragxagelI. kalnarstab;rgmanfamblcitduckña enahlmdab;énkarbegáiteligrtuv)ankmnt;rtwm RtUvtamlMdab;énfamBlrbs;eK. rubsnæanpabedimedleyigefvikarsakl,gedim,itaytuk lmdab;énkarbegáiteligkwrtuv)an kmnt;eligedayfamblsarubéngatum. famblsarub éngatumminrkan;etmingars½yelifamblénrstab;rgb:uenñahet EfmTaMgminGaRs½yelI fambl éncmenamgnþrkmμénpabxuskñarbs;rstab;rgéngatumenahedr. duecñhsmrab;fatu TaMgGs;Edlman Z= b FMCag famblénrstab;rg 3d KWTabCagfamBlénRsTab;rg 4s (emilrub3)edlpþúykñaetaniglmdab;énkarbegáitelig. enhkwcalmdab;énkarbegáiteligedlgñk RtUvkarteRmob edim,itaytukrubsnæaneglicrtugénpabedimrbs;gatum. \LÚvenHGñkGaceXIjfaetIRtUvbegáIteLIgvijnUvrUbsNæaneGLicRtugkñúgtarag y:ag duemþcedayerbiekalkarn¾begáitelig. cgcamfa cmnyneglicrtugkñúggatumnwtesμietanigelx lmdab; Z (bnþúkénvy:ukw +Z). kñúgkrnigatumgaybmput GIuRdUEsn (Z=) GñkTTYl)anPaBedIm edaycmnyseglicrtugetmyyetakñúgg½rb Ítal; s pþl;[rubsnæan s (GanfamYyeGsmYy). \LÚvenHemIleTAeGlüÚm He (Z=). eglicrtugdmbugefvidmenir etag½rb Ítal; s duckñúgkrni 7-47

48 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum GIuRdUEsnRbRBwtþeTAeGLicRtugTIBIr BIeRBaHG½rb Ítal;nImYy²GacTTYleGLicRtugBIr. rubsnæan s. karbmebjrstab; n = begáiteligrubsnæany:agmansßirpab ehiyduccalt pl TTYl)aneFVI[ekIneTAelIGatUmmanlkçN³KImIGskmμ. rub 3 famblg½rb Ítal;sMrab;GatUmesándüÚm (Z=). kt;smkal;fakñúggatumesándüúm minducca GatUmGIuRdUEsn RsTab;rgsMrab; n )anbrgikenaq aybikñakñúgfambl. duecñh fambl p KWxagelI s. RsedogKña RsTab;rg n = 3 KW)anBRgIk[eTAtamlMdab; 3 s 3p 3d. famblrstab;rg3d KW\LÚvenHenAeRkam 4s. (tméltuelx enh)anknnabirtwsþieday Charlotte F. Fischer, Vanderbilt University). GñkbnþviFIenHtameGLicRtugTaMgLayenAeBleFVI[ Z ekineligmyyehiyeday karbenßmeglicrtugepsgetot. GñkTTYl)anrUbsNæaneGLicRtugénGatUmBITMrg;kar eglicrtugedaykarbenßmeglicrtugmyyetakñúgg½rb Ítal;bnÞab; EdlGacmaneTAtamlMdab; begáit[manelig. krnilicum (Z=3) eglicrtugbirdmbug[rubsnæan s dueceglüúm b:uenþeglicrtugtibiefvidmeniretag½rb Ítal;x<s;CagbnÞab;kñúglMdab;begáIt[maneLIg BIeRBaH G½rb Ítal; s \LÚvenHKW)anbMeBj. kic karenh[rubsnæan s. krni ebril:üúm s (Z=4) eglicrtug TI 4 bmebjg½rb Ítal; s [rubsnæan s. s ebiigñkerbikarsresrkat; [He] smrab; s rubsnæankw ³ 7-48

49 Z = 3 licum b s s [He] s Z = 4 ebrilüúm s b s [He] cmebahb½r ( Z = 5) eglicrtugcab;epþimbmebjrstab;rg s s s p Z = 5 b½r p b [He] Z = 6 kabun s s p b [He]... GñkTTYl³ s p s p 6 6 Z = 0 engug s s p b [He] s p RsTab;rg p RtUv)anbMeBj GñkGacrkeXIjCafμInUvrUbsNæansßirPaBedayEpñk. engug CaFatuKImI Gskmμ. cmebahsudüúm ( Z =) G½rb Ítal; 3s cab;epþimbmebj. sresrbmrbyj [Ne] smrab; 6 s s p Gñk)an³ 6 Z = sudüúm s s p b [Ne] 6 Z = m:aejsüúm s s p b [Ne] bnþab;mkrstab;rg 3p cab;epþimbmebj. 3s 3s 3s 3s 6 Z =3 GaluymIjÚm s s p 3p b [Ne]... 3s 3s 3s 3s 3p Z = 8 Gakug s s p 3p b [Ne] 3p CamYyRsTab;rg 3p RtUv)anbMeBj rubsnæansßirpab)ansermc. GakugCaFatuGskmμ. \LÚvG½rb Ítal; 4s cam;epþimedim,ibmebj. GñkTTYl[Ar] 4s smrab;b:utasüúm 6 6 ( Z = 9) nig [Ar] 4s smrab;kal;süúm ( [Ar] = s s p 3s 3p ). enacmnucenh RsTab;rg3d cab;epþimedim,ibmebj. GñkTTYl [Ar] 3d smrab;esándüúm 4s ( Z = ), [Ar] smrab;titan (Z = )ehiynig [Ar] smrab;v:anadüúm (Z = 3). kt;smkal;fa 3d 4s 3d 3 4s eyig)ansresrrubsnæancamyyrstab;rg)antmerobkñúglmdab;edayrstab;. enhcakarcmnys CaTUeTAsMrab;RsTab;rgkñúglMdab;edayfamBlnigdak;RsTab;rg EdlminTak;TgkñúgRbtikmμKImI enaq aybisþam. 7-49

50 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum Tuk[eyIgrMlgeTAdl;s½gásI ( Z = 30). RsTab;rg 3d )anbmebj. rubsnæankw [Ar] 3d. \LÚvRsTab;rg cab;epþimedim,ibmebj karcab;epþimcamyykal;lüúm 0 4s 4 p ( Z = 3) 0 rubsnæankw [Ar] 3d 4s 4 p nigbba b;camyy RKIbtug ( Z = 36) rubsnæankw 0 6 [Ar] 3d 4s 4 p. rubsnæaneglicrtugnigtaragxyb (Electron Configurations and Periodic Table) enaeblenhgñkgacexijkmrugpivdæn¾cmenamrubsnæaneglicrtugpabediméngatum. GñkGaceXIjfa KMrUenHBnül;BItaragxYbeday)anBiB NnaedaysegçbkñúgCMBYkTI.4. BinitüeTA eli engug Gakug nig RKIbtug CaFatuEdlenAkñúgRkum VIIIA éntaragxyb. engug Gakug nig RKIbtugmanrUbsNæankñúgRsTab;rg p EdleTIb )anbmebj (eglüúm)anbmebjrstab;rg KμanrsTab;rg EdlGacman). s p eglüúm s engug 6 s s p Gakug 6 6 s s p 3s 3p RKIbtug 6 6 s s p 0 6 3s 3p 3d 4s 4 p FatuTaMgenHCasmaCIkdMbUgénRkumrbs;FatuehAfa ]sμ½nkmr (noble gases) edaysar EtTMnak;TMngGskmμrbs;BYkeK. \LÚvRkeLkemIlrUbsNæanénebrüÚm m:aejsüúm nig kal;süúm CasmaCIkénRkum elah³gal;kalamgdi (alkaline earth metals) Rkum IIA EdlmanlkçN³RsedogKñaFatu RbtikrmFüm. ebrüúm s s b [He] s 6 m:aejsüúm s s p 3s b [Ne] 3s 6 kal;süúm s s p 3s b 6 3p 4s [Ar] 4s rubsnæantamgenhnimyy²ekiteligén ]sμ½nkmrrkwh KWfa CaRsTab;niclrUbsNæanTTYl rab;rgetaeli]sμ½nkmrmyy benßmeglicrtugxagerkabir RtUvnigrUbsNæan ns. 7-50

51 rub 33 taragxyb taragenhbgðajbirubsnæanrstab;v:alg;énfatu 7-5

52 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum Fatub½r GalumIjÚm nig kal;lüúm (Rkum I I I A) k¾manlkçn³rsedogkñaedr. rubsnæanrbs;ekkw ³ b½r s s p b [He] s p GaluymIjÚm 6 s s p 3s 3p b [Ne] 3s 3p kallüúm s s p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4 p b [Ar] 3d 4s 4 p b½r nig GaluymIjÚmmanmanRKwH]sμ½nkMrbEnßmeGLicRtugbICamYyrUbsNæan ns. np kal;lüúm)anbenßmrstab;rg 3d. ]sμ½nkmrrkwhculrymkñacamyyeglicrtug( n ) 0 d KWCYnkalsMedAeTAelImNÐldUc]sμ½nkMrRKwH (Pseudo-noble-gas-core) BIeRBaHeGLicRtugTaMg enhetgetmintak;tgetakñúgrbtikmμkimiet. eglicrtugkñúggatumxagerka]sμ½nkmr b tamgxøúünduccamnðl]sμ½nkmr KWehAfa eglicrtugv:alg;. KWdUcCaeGLicRtugEdlTak;TgCabzmeTAkñúgRbtikmμKImI ehiyrsedogkña EdrkñúgcMeNamrUbsNæanéneGLicRtugv:aLg; (rubsnæanrstab;v:alg;) CYbRbTHsMrab;PaB RsedogKñaénlkçN³KImIkñúgcMeNamRkuménFatuTaMLay. rub 33 bgðajbitaragxybcamyyrubsnæanrstab;v:alg;rtuv)anrab;bba Úl. kt;smkal;fa PaBRsedogKña kñúgrubsnæaneglicrtugxagkñúgrkumnimyy² (bnþat;qr) énfatu. karbnül;rsedogkñaenhetikimiviturtamgetbi Mendeleev )ansáal;bilkçn³énfatukñúgrkum nimyy² KWRsedogKñaBIGVI. Rkumem(b tmnag[) FatuTaMgGs;manrUbsNæanRsTab;v:aLg; ns a np b CamYyCMerIs myycmnynén a nig b ( b KYrEtesμI 0). kñúgn½yepsgetot RsTab;Tab;rgxageRkA s b p KWRtUv)ancab;epþImbMeBj. Rbhak;RbEhlKñaEdrFatuqøgbøúk d ( CYnkalehA[gayFatuqøg). RsTab;rg d KWcab;epþImbMeBj. kñúgfatuqøgbøúk f (b Fatuqøgnicl) RsTab;rg f KWcab;epþImbMeBj. (emilrub 3 b ]bsm<n½ D smrab;rubsnæanénfatutamgenh). krnielikelgetaeliekalkarn¾begáit[manelig (Exceptions to the Building-up Principle) ducgñk)anniyayehiy ekalkarn¾begáit[maneligbegáiteligvijpakercinrub snæanpabedimy:agrtwmrtuv. GaRs½yehtuenHmankrNIelIkElgmYycMnYn ehiyrkum (Z = 4) EdlCafatudMbUgEdleyIgCYb. ekalkarn¾begáit[maneligtaytukbirubsnæan [Ar] KitfavaRtwmRtUvmYyKWrkeXIjtamkarBiesaF etaca [Ar]. rubsnæan 4 3d 4s 3d 5 4s 7-5

53 TaMgBIrenHKWBitCaenACitfamBlsarubedaysarEtPaBCitbMputkñúgfamBlén G½rb Ítal; 3d nig 4s (emilrub 7eLIgvij). cmebahbbaaðenh RbsiT PaBtictYcGacCH\T ibletaelirubsnæanbir KW fambltabcagbit. Tg;Edg ( Z = 9) KWCakrNIelIkElgepSgeTotelIeKalkarN¾begáIt [manelig EdlTayTukBIrUbsNæan [Ar] 3d etahbibiesafn¾bgðajpabedimetanig 9 4s rubsnæan [Ar] 3d. 0 4s eyigminrtuvkarn¾ BwgBak;eTAelIkrNIelIkElgTaMgenHrYcputBIkarsMKal;EdlekItman. cmnucedlkyr cgcamkwfarubsnæanrtuv)antaytukedayekalkarn¾begáit[manelig KWCitbMput etakñúgfambledim,irubsnæan RKwH (RbsinebIvaminmanPaBedIm). lkçn³snñidæanpakercin EdlRtUvykcitþTukdak;eTAelIKImIénFatuKWminEmn vtßúfatu)anch\t ibledaykarceckbirub snæan)an[edayekalkarn¾begáit[manelig. KImIGnuvtþn_³ vifierbir)as;]bkrn¾ (Instrumental Methods) kamrsμi x cmnyngatum nig TMrg;G½rb Ítal; (s,icrtusáúbi putueglicrtug) kñúgqñam 93 Henry G.J.Moseley CanisSitrbs; Rutherford )anerbir)as;bec kets kamrsμi x s,icrtusáúbi (etibet)anrkexijeday Max von Laue) edim,ikmnt;cmnyngatuménfatu. kamrsμi x RtUv)anbegáIteLIgkñúgbMBg;kaMrsμIkatUtenAeBl EdlBnøWeGLicRtug (kamrsμikatut) Føak;eTAelIvg;mUlénelah³. karbnül;smrab;plitpl énkamrsμi x enhkwmanducteta ³ kalnaeglicrtugkñúgkamrsμikatutb:hgatumelah³kñúgvg;mul vagac(rbsinebivamanfamblrkb;rkan;) TgÁiceGLicRtugBIRsTab;niclrbs;GatUm. GIuy:ug elah³rtuv)an begáiteligcamyyeglicrtugedl)at;bg;big½rb Ítal;nicl. rubsnæan eglicrtugrbs;vakwgsßirpab ehiynigeglicrtugbig½rb Ítal;énfamBlx<s;CagFøak;cuHeTAkñúg Bak;kNþalénG½rb Ítal;EdlRtUv)anbMeBj nigputug)anbeba j. putugttylr:ab;rgetaelikamrsμi eglicrtum:aejtickñúgdmbn;kamrsμi x. famblrbs;g½rb Ítal;niclénGatUm ehiynigbnþúrfamblrvagbykekgars½yetaeli bnþúknuyekøeg r +Z. duecñhfamblputug h υ nigerhvkg; υ énkarbeba jkamrsμi x GaRs½yeTA elicmnyngatum ZénGatUm elah³enakñúgvg;mul. rub 34 bgðajs,ickamrsμi x TTYl)antamry³ 7-53

54 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum Moseley CamYyvg;elah³epSg²Kña. PaBedaypÞal;cMNuHeTAelIs,ickaMrsμI x elicmnyngatum mann½yfamyymanvific,as;las;énkarsmerccitþfaetisarfatuenhkwcafatusut b minsut. rub 34 s,ickamrsμi x BIFatukal;süÚmdl;sgá½sI TTYl)aneday Moseley. lt plénbnþat;nimyy²bikarbeba jéncmhanrlk)an[. edaysaretpabpøas;bþúrén sgá½si Moseley )anerbismelah³tg;edg(smelah³ Tg;Edg-sgá½sI) smrab;gegátetaelis,ic énsgá½si. smkal;fa bnþat;tg;edgkñúgsmelah³tg;edg. kt;smkal;pgedrfa etibnþat;man PaBcMerIneTAxagsþaM (bgðajbikmenincmhanrlk b tmhyfamblxus²kña) CamYytMhy cmnyngatum. bec ketsedlcab;tak;tgs,icrtusáúbiputueglicrtugkamrsμi x RtUv)anbBaa keday BiesaFn¾tamTsSn³RTwsþIrbs;eyIgénTMrg;G½rb Ítal;rbs;GatUm. CMnYskarcaMgBnøWPaKsMNak CamYyviTüúsBaaØeGLicRtugnigkarviPaKeRhVgk;énkaMrsμI x )anbeba jgñkbbaa MgBnøWeTAelIPaK smnakcamyykamrsμi x nigvipakfamblsiuenticén eglicrtugedl)anbba Úl. ekgacniyayfa GñkGegátplpUtUeGLicRTiceLIPaKsMNak (emilepñk ). ]TahrN¾ s,icrtusáúbbiputueglicrticbgðajpaksmnakén]s½μnengug (GatUm engug). ]bmafapaksmnakkwrtuvdak;[rtuvbnøwcamyykamrsμi x éncmhanrlkfmlμmcak;lak; edim,iykeglicrtug s ecjbigatum engug. EpñkfamBlrbs;pUtugkaMrsμI X, h υ KW)aneRbIedIm,IykecjeGLicRtugecjBIGatUm (enhcafamblgiuy:ugkmμ I.E smrab;eglicrtug enh). famblenasl;ekiteligducfamblsiuentic E k éneglicrtug Edl)anbBa Úl. BIc,ab;rkSafamBl eyiggacsresr ³ E k = hυ - I.E BIeRBaH hυ KW)ankMNt; E k nwggars½yetaelibnþat; I.E énfamblgiuy:ugkmμ. 7-54

55 RbsinebIGñkeMilÉeGLicRtugEdl)anbBa ÚlBIenGug GñkrkeXIjfa BYkeKmanfamBl siuentic Tak;TgeTAnigfamBlGIuy:ugkmμBIRKb;G½rb Ítal;EdlGacman ( s, s nig p ) kñúggatum. duecñh kalnagñkesánfambl siuenticepsg²kñaéneglicrtug)anbba Úl GñkeXIjs,icCamYy nigbik (peak) TTYlrab;rgeTAnigG½rb Ítal;Edl)antaMgTIxusKña² (emilrub 35A). fambl GIuy:ugkmμTaMgenHKWRbEhlCaesμIeTAnigtMélviC manébfamblg½rb Ítal; (rub 35B) duecñhs,ic pþl;[karrtytbinitübiesafn¾edaypþal;énkmritfambldac;²bikñatak;tgcamyynig eglicrtug éngatum. rub 35 kamrsμi x s,icputueglicrtugénengug. (A) BiknImYy² bgðajbifambléneglicrtug Edl)anbBa Úl. famblénkamrsμiputugnimyy²kw 00,9 0 J. 8 (B) düarkamkmritfambl smrab;engug. PaBqøgEdlekIteLIgkñúgs,icpUtUeGLicRtugKWrhUtdl; n = EdlfamBlesμI 0. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> 8 kar sresrrumsnæaneglicrtugedayerbitaragxyb Writing Electron Configurations using the Periodic Table kñúglmdab;lmedayedim,ibipaksaetaelikarcgsm<½n nig KImIénFatuEdlTak;TgKña GñkRtUv EtmanlT PaBbegáIteLIgvijBIrUbsNæan éngatumcamyypabgayrsylgnuvtþn¾tamekalkar begáit[manelig. RKb;tRmUvkarrbs;GñkKWmYycMnYnmanPaBgayRsYlkñúgkarnwkeXIjBIlMdab; énkarbegáitelivvijénrstab;rg. kic karmyyedim,ixitetarkkwkarnwkexijeligvijbitmrg; éntaragxyb. BIeRBaHTMrg;enH CamUldæanvaR)ab;GñknUvviFIRtwmRtUvedIm,IcgcaMBIlMdab; énkarbegáit[manelig. mankmrukmnt; 7-55

56 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum edim,itmerobkarbmebjénrstab;rg ducedlgñk)angnuvtþn¾tamfatukñúgtaragxyb ehiytamvifienh GñkGacsresrlMdab; énkarbegáitelig. rub 36 bgðajbitaragxybbbaa k;bikmruenh. ]TahrN¾ kñúgdmbn;b Nexov RsTab;rg ns KW)ancab;epþImbMeBj. kñúgdmbn; B Nébtg RsTab;rg np KW)ancab; epþimbmebj. tmél n KW)anmkBIelxxYb (CYredk).kñúgdMbn;B NébtgRsTab;rg ( n )d KW)ancab;epþImbMeBj. GñkGan[cb;BIlMdab; énkarbegáiteligedaycab;epþimcamyyxybtiedlrstab;rg s KW)ancab;epþIm bmebj. kñúgxybti eyigman s (dmbn;b Nexov) bnþab;mksßitenakñúgxybduckña b:uenþelatqøgkat; Gñkman p (dmbn;b Nébtg). kñúgxybti3 Gñkman 3s nig 3p. kñúgxybti4 4s (dmbn;b Nexov), 3d (dmbn;b NelOg) ehiybnþab;mk 4 p (dmbn;b Nébtg). KMrUenHKYrEtmanlkçN³c,as;las;RKb;RKan;edIm,IemIl[c,as;CamYy taragxybedlmin)an dak; pøakcamyyrstab;rg. rub 36 taragxybbgðajlmdab;énkarbegiát[maelig. dmbn;faturtuv)andak;b NbgðajBIPaB xuskña énrstab;rg EdlkMBugbMeBjCamYyeGLicRtugTaMgenaH. ]TahrN¾ 8 curkmnt;rubsnæanrbs;gatumedayerbir)as;ekalkarn¾énkarbegáit[manelig ³ erbiekalkarn¾énkarbegáit[maneligedim,ittyl)anrubsnæansmrab;pabedimsmrab;ga tumkal;lüúm ( Z =3). cur[rubsnæanéntmrg;ebjelj (minrtuvsresrkat;tmrg;muldæan). etigvietacarubsnæanrstab; v:alg;? cmeliy ³ emiletataragxyb (EpñkxagmuxTMB½rxagkñúgénesovePAenH). cab;epþimbigiurduesn ehiy emilkñúgtaragxybtagmulsresrrstab;rgedl)ancab;epþimbmebj bbaäb;rtg;kal;lüúm. GñknwgTTYl)ankarteRmob duc teta³ 7-56

57 s s p 3s3p 4s3d 4 p xyb TI TI TI3 TI4 \LÚvenHGñkbMeBjeGLicRtugCamYyRsTab;rg cgcamfagñkmaneglicrtugsarub 3 edim,ipþl;[. eyigttyl)an³ s s p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4 p b RbsinebIGñktMerobeLIgvijRsTab;rgedayRsTab; eyiggacsresr³ s s p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4 p rubsnæanrstab;v:alg;kw ³ 4s 4 p lmhat;ti 9 ³ erbiekalkarn¾énkarbegáit[maneligedim,ittyl)anrubsnæansmrab;pab RKwHsMrab;GatUmm:g;kaENs ( Z =5). kñúgkrnicaercin GñkRtUvkarrUbsNæaneGLicRtugRsTab;eRkAbg s;etmyykt;. GñkGac kmnt;vabiti tamg énfatukñúgtaragxyb. nwkexijfa rubsnæanrstab;v:alg;énfatukñúgrkumemkw ns Edl CaeKalkaN¾cMnYnkg;Ticrbs;RsTab;eRkA EdlesμIpgEdreTAnwgelxxYbsMrab; a np b n Fatu. cmnynsarubéneglicrtugv:alg; EdlesμI etanig a + b Gac)anmkBIelxRkum. ]TahrN¾ kal;lüúmsßitkñúgxybti 4 duecñh n = 4. vasßitkñúgrkumti IIIA duecñh cmnyneglicrtugv:alg;kw 3. krnienh[rubsnæanrstab;v:alg; 4s. rubsnæanénrstab;erkabg s;énfatuqøgkw 4 p TTYl)ankñúgrebobRbhak;RbEhlKña. ]TahrN¾ 9 curkmnt;rubsnæanéngatumedayerbitaragxybnigelxrkum etigvietacarubsnæansmrab;rstab;erkabg s;én (a) etlüúm Z = 5 nig (b) niekl Z =8? dmenahrsay³ (a)gñkrktitamgetlüúmkñúgtaragxybkwvasßitenakñúgxybti 5 RkumTI VIA. duecñh vacafatukñúgrkumem ehiyrstab;rgerkabg s;kw 5s nig 5 p. RsTab;rgTaMgenHman 6 4 eglicrtug BIeRBaHRkumrbs;vaKW VIA. rubsnæan RsTab;v:aLg;KW 5s. 5p (b) nieklcafatuqøgkñúgxybti4 EdlTMrg;CaTUeTAénrUbsNæanRsTab;eRKAbg s;kw 3d. a 4s edim,i kmnt; a GñkeXIjfavaesμIeTAnigelxr:UmaMugéncMnYnRkumrhUtdl;Edk (8). bnþab;mk Gñkrab; Co fa 9 nig Ni fa 0. duecñh rubsnæanrstab;erkabg s;kw 3d. 8 4s lmhat; 0.eRbItaragxYbenAKMrbBIxagmux cursresrrubsnæanrstab;eglicrtugv:alg;rbs; Gaesnic(As). 7-57

58 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum 4 0 lmhat;. GatUmsMNmanrUbsNæanPaBedIm [Xe] 4 f 5d 6s 6 p. currkxybnigrkumsmrab; FatuenH. BITItaMg rbs;vakñúgtaragxyb curgñkcat;fñak;smncarkumem Fatuqøg b Fatuqøgnicl? 9 düarkamg½rb Ítal;énGatUm vifan HUND kñúgkarbipaksabipabedimrbs;gatum eyigmintan;)anbib NnaetIeGLicRtug)antMerobkñúgRsTa;rgnImYy²y:agdUemþc. RbEhlCaman rebobxuskñamyycmnynénkartmerobeglicrtugkñúgrub snæanedayepñk. curbgðajbigatumkabun ( Z = 6) CamYyPaBedIm s s p. kartmerob manbiedlgacmantamdüarkamg½rb Ítal;dUc teta ³ düarkam : s s p düarkam : düarkam 3: s s p s s p düarkamg½rb Ítal;TaMgenHbgðajsNæanxusKñaénGatUmkabUn. snæannimyy²man famblxuskña ehiygñknigexijbilkçn³ticxuskña. vifan Hund RbEhlCakñúgqñaM 97 Friedrich Hund )anrkexijvifangaykmnt;kartmerob fambltabbmputéneglicrtugkñúgkúñgrstab;rg. vifan Hund EføgfakartMerobfamBlTab bmputéneglicrtugkñúgrstab;rgkwttyl)anedaykardak;eglicrtugetakñúgg½rb Ítal edayelk BIKñaénRsTab;rgCamYys<IndUcKñamunnigeFVIkarpÁÚreGLicRtug. Tuk[eyIgbgðajfa etikarenhkyr EtGnuvtþn¾dUemþceTAelIkrNIGatUmkabUnEdlrUbsNæanRKwHKW s s p. eglicrtugbyndmbug efvidmeniretakñúgg½rb Ítal; s nig s. s s p eglicrtugbirbnþab;etotefvidmeniretakñúgg½rb Ítal; TaMgBIrmans<IndUc Kña. tamc,ab; Hund eyig)an ³ p s s p edayelkbikña CamYyeGLicRtug 7-58

59 duecñh düarkamg½rb Ítal;TTYlrab;rgeTAelIfamBlTabbMputKWCadüaRkamG½rb Ítal;mYy EdlBImuneyIg dak;eqμahcadüarkam. edim,ignuvtþn¾vifan Hund etaeligatumguksiuesn EdlrUbsNæanPaBedImKW 4 s s p eyigcmnys eglicrtug 7 dmbugducteta ³ s s p eglicrtugcugerkaykwcakur CamYyeGLicRtugmYyCaeGLicRtug etv)antamgti. G½rb Ítal;düaRkamsMrab;PaBedIménGatUmGuksIuEsnKW ³ p edim,i[g½rb Ítal; s s p kñúg]tahrn¾bnþab;vifan Hund KW)aneRbIsMrab;düaRkamG½rb Ítal;sMrab;PaBedIm éngatumedlmanlkçn³samjamú. düarkamg½rb Ítal;sMrab;PaBedIménFatu 0 dmbug)anbgðaj kñúgtarag 3. ]TahrN¾ 0. Gnuvtþn¾eTAelIviFan Hund cursresrdüarkamg½rb tal;smrab;pabediméngatumedk. dmenahrsay BIeKalkarN¾karbegáIt[maneLIg GñkkMNt;farUbsNæaneGLicRtugénGatUmEdkKW s s p 3s 3p 3d 4s. RKb;RsTab;rg elikelget 3d KW)anbMeBj. kñúgkarcmnys eglicrtug 6 kñúgrstab;rg 3d GñkeXIjfaeGLicRtug 5 dmbugculetakñúgg½rb Ítal; 3d eday ELkBIKñaCamYyRBYjs<Inrbs;eKkñúgTisedAdUcKña. eglicrtugti6 RtUvEttaMgTIeTVenAG½rb Ítal; 3d. düarkamg½rb Ítal;KW³ s s p 3s 3p 3d 4s GñkGacsresrdüaRkamenHkñúgTMrg;bMRBYjedayeRbI [Ar] smrab;gatumedkkw³ [Ar] 3d lmhat;. sresrdüarkamg½rb Ítal;sMrab;PaBedIménGatUmpUs½Vr (Z =5). sresrrkb;g½rb Ítal; 4s 7-59

60 RTwsþIkg;Tic nwgtmrg;eglicrtunicéngatum lkçn³m:aejticrbs;gatum (Magnetic Properties of Atoms) lkçn³m:aejticénsafatugacbgðaj[exijbt manbitgmbikartermobeglicrtugkñúg GatUm (b m:uelkul). etahbicaeglicrtugkñúggatummanlkçn³ducemedkd¾tuckarrbtaj m:aejticbieglicrtugbirkwmans<in pþúykñaetavijetamk. duc)anbgðaj GatUmEdlman G½rb Ítal;EtBIr)antaMgTIKμanbNþajs<InEdlmanlkçN³emEdk. duecñh GatUmEdlkñúgenaHman eglicrtugmindak;etvtaeglicrtugrymkwfa kñúgenahmanrbepts<inmyyelisedlefvikarbgðaj BIbNþajm:aejTic. lkçn³m:aejticéngatumgacrtuv)angegát. vifiedaypþal;kwedim,ikmnt;fa etisarfatu éngatumkwrtuv)anrbtajetaeliednénm:aejticxøamg. sarfatu)a:ra:m:aejtic KWWCasarFatu Edl)anRbTajexSayedayEdnm:aejTic ehiykarrbtajenhcatueta KWCalT plén eglicrtugmindak;rym. ]TahrN¾ cmhaysudüúmrtuv)anrkexijtamkarbiesafn¾ Edlman lkçn³)a;r:am:aejtic. karbnül;enhkwfa cmhaymancabzmnuvgatumsudüúmehiygatumsudüúm nimyy²maneglicrtugmindak;etvtarym(rubsnæankw [Ne] 3s ). sarfatudüam:aejtic KwCa sarfatuedlminrbtaj rwrcantictycbmputedayednm:aejtic. lkçn³enhcatuetamann½yfa CasarFatuEdlmanEteGLicRtugdak;KUr. ]TahrN¾ ekrkexijtambiesafn¾cmhay)art Cadüam:aejTic. eyiggacsnμt;fa cmhay)artmanetgatum)art EdlmanTMrg;eGLicRtug [Xe]4f 4,5d 0,6s decñh maneteglicrtugdak;kur. tarag 3. düarkamg½rb Ítal;sMrab;PaBedIménGatUmBI Z = dl; Z =