emeronti1 Atoms Molecules and Ions 1-1

emeronti1 GatU Um m: :U UelKu ul ni iggi Iu uyu u: :g Atoms Molecules and Ions tamgbism½yburanmkem:øh EdlmnusSeyIg)anKitBicarNaBIFmμCatirbs;rUbFatu. KMnit rikcmerinrbs;eyig sþibitmrg;énrubfatu)ancab;epþimecjcarubragenaedimstvtsti19enhtamrtwsþi GatUmrbs;elak DALTON. \LÚvenH eyigdwgfarkb;rubfatutamggs;kwbgáeligbigatum m:uelkulniggiuy:ug. RKb;EpñkénKImITaMgGs;KWTak;TgeTAnwgEpñkmYykñúgcMeNamEpñTaMgGs;enH. 1 RTwsþIGatUm enastvtsti15tssnvitucncatirkicmñak;eqμah Democritus )anbba ak;nuvkarecocak;fa rbs;kat;fa RKb;rUbFatuTaMgGs;pSMeLIgBIPaKl ittucbmputedlekmingacemilexij EdlKat;[ eqμahfagatum. etahbicakmnit rbs;elak Democritus minrtuv)anmnussmyycmnynkñúgsm½y kalrbs;kat;ttylykk¾eday k¾var)akdedayrbkarnamyyedrenakñúgsm½yenah. Psþútag tamkarbiesafn_edlgegátedaygñkvitüasarsþsm½ymun²)anpþl; karkamrtcmebahsbaøanén GatUm ehiyk¾)anelikelignuvniymn½yénfatu nigsmasfatu[manlkçn³tmenib bnþicmþg². karsegátenhkwrtuv)anefvieligenakñúgqñam 1808 edaygñkvitüasarsþcncatigg;ekøs nigca RKUbeRgonmñak;eQμaHJohn Dalton EdlKat;)anbegáIteLIgnUvniymn½ymYyy:agc,as;sþIGMBIFatu bgáénrubfatu[eqμahfa GatUm. karbiesafrbs; Dalton )ankusbba ak;bicmnuccab;epþiménkimivitüasm½ytmenib. smμtikmμ EdlniyayBIFmμCati rbs;rubfatuedlekep ketaelirtwsþirbs; Dalton enahkwekgacsegçb)an ducxagerkam³ 1> FatuEdlRtUv)anpSMeLIgBIPaKl ittuc²bmputekehafagatum.rkb;gatuménfatumyy duckña KWvamanm:as duckña madduckña niglkçn³kimiduckña. GatUménFatumYy KWvaxusBI GatUménFatumYyeTot. 2> smasfatukwbgáeligbigatuménfatumyyb ercin. enakñúgrkb;smasfatutamggs; plefobéncmnyngatuménfatubir EdlmanenAkñúgsmasFatuenaHKWCacMnYnKt; b Ca cmnynrbpakgay. 1-1

3> kñúgrbtikmμkimimyykwvatak;tgetanwgkarpþac; karbnsm nigkarerobcmgatumeligvij vakμanplb:hbal; dl;karbegáitb karbmpøajrbs;gatumtamgenahet. rub1 KWCarUb tmnagénsmμtikmμbirdmbug. bbaøtirbs;elak Dalton cmebahgatummyykwmanlkçn³l itl n; nigc,as;cagrtwsþirbs; elak Democritus. smμtikmμtimyy KWbBa ak;fagatumtamggs;énfatumyy KWmanlkçN³ xuskñabigatuménfatumyyetot. elak Dalton Kat;KμanKMnitGVIedIm,IBnül;faGatUmvamanragdUc GVIenaHeT b:uenþkat;bitcadwgfa lkçn³xuskñaedlbgðajedayfatunimyy² duccagiurduesn nig GuksIuEsnGacRtUv)aneKBnül;)anedaykarsnμt;faGatUmGIuRdUEsnTaMgGs; KWmindUcGatUmrbs; GuksIuEsneT. smμtikmμti2)anesñieligfa edim,ibegáit)ansmasfatumyybitr)akdeyigminemn RtUvkarEtGatUménFatu EdlmanRbePTRtwmRtUvb:ueNÑaHeT b:uenþeyigrtuvkarcmnyncak;lak;én GatUmenaHpgEdr. KMnitenHKWCaKMnitEdlbnþBI c,ab;myyedle)ahbum<psayenaqñam 1799eday elak Joseph Proust CaKImIviTUCnCati)araMgmñak;. c,ab;smamartkmnt; rbs;elak Proust )anbba ak;fa PaKsMNakxusKñaénsmasFatudUcKñaEtgEtmanFatupSMrbs;vakñúgsmamaRtCa m:asduckña. duecñhrbsinebieyigrtuvvipaketaelipaksmnakrbs;]sμ½nkabundiguksiut EdlTTYl )anmkbirbpbxus²kñaenah eyignwgrbthexijfaenakñúgpaksmnaknimyy² plefobcam:as rbs;vaduckñabikabunetaguksiuesn ducenhvasmehtupledlfa RbsinebIpleFobCam:asén FatunImYy²xusKñakñúgsmasFatumYy EdleK[vakMNt;enaHpleFobGatUmrbs;FatuTaMg Gs;enAkñúgsmasFatuenaHk¾RtUvEtefrpgEdr. smμtikmμti2rbs;elak Dalton KaMRTeTAelIc,ab;d¾mansarsMxan;mYyepSgeTot KWc,ab; BhusmamaRt. eyagetatamc,ab;enah RbsinebIFatuBIrGacpSMKñaedIm,IbegáItsmasFatumYy b ercinenahm:asénfatumyyedlpsmcamyym:askmnt;énfatud¾ét²etotkwsßitenakñúgplefobcmny nsrubtuc. RTwsþIrbs;elak Dalton Bnül;c,ab;BhusmamaRty:agsamBaØbMputfa smasfatuxuskña EdlbegáIteLIgBIFatudUcKña KWxusKñaRtg;cMnYnGatUménFatunImYy² EdlpSMKñaenaH. ]TahrN_ kabunbegáitsmasfatu esßrpabbircamyyguksiuesnkw kabunm:unuguksiutnigkabundiguksiut. bec ketsénrgvas;d¾tmenibmyy )anbba ak;fagatummyy rbs;kabun psmcamyygatummyyrbs;guksiuesn begáitcasmasfatukabunm:unuguksiut nigcamyy GatUmBIrrbs;GuksIuEsnbegáItCasmasFatukabUnDIGuksIut. 1-2

duecñhplefobénguksiuesnenakñúg kabunm:unuguksuitcamyyguksiuesnena kñúgkabundiguksiut KW 1 : 2 lt plenh KWvaRsbeTAnwgc,ab; BhusmamaRt. GatUménFatu X GatUménFatu Y smasfatuénfatu X nigfatu Y k x rub1 k> edayeyagetatamrtwsþigatumrbs;elak Dalton GatUménFatudUcKña KWmanlkçN³ duckña b:uenþgatuménfatu myykwxusbigatuménfatu myyetot. x> smasfatuedlbegáiteligbi GatUménFatu X nigy. enakñúgkrnienhplefobéngatumrbs;fatu X efobca myy GatUm énfatu YKW 2:1. smμtikmμti3rbs;elakdaltonkwcamefüa)aymyyepsgedim,icacmnuccab;epþimkñúgkarsiksa c,ab;rksam:as EdlEcgfarUbFatuTaMgGs;KWeKminGacbegáItb k¾bmpøajva)anet edaysaretrub FatuKWbegáIteLIgBIGatUmEdleKminGacpøas;bþÚr)anenAkñúgRbtikmμKImIehIyvak¾EcgpgEdrfa m:askwrksaenadedl.kmnittulmtulayrbs;elak Dalton cmebahfmμcatiénrubfatuenahkwcakar eliktwkcitþd¾smxan;smrab;karrikcmeriny:agqab;rh½sénepñkkimivitüaenakñúgkmlúgstvtsti19enh. 2 TMrg;énGatUm tamlkçn³rkw³énrtwsþirbs; Dalton eyiggackmnt;fa GatUmmYyKWCaxñatRKw³rbs;Fatu myy EdlGaccUleTAbnSMKImI. elak Dalton )anrsém:fagatumcapakl itmyy EdltUcbMput ehiyekmingacemilvaexij. etahbicay:agnak¾eday k¾kargegátcaercin Edl)ancab;epþIm enakñúgtsvtsqñam1850 ehiy)anbnþmkdl;stvtsti20 enh)anbba ak;y:agc,as;fagatum Bit CamanTMrg;xagkñúgrbs;va ebietahbicavabgáeligbipakl ittuccagenhedlekehafapakl itbgá GatUmk¾eday. karrsavrcavenhnam[mankarrkexijbipaktamgbienhkw eglicrtug RbUtug nignwtrtug. 2>1 eglicrtug 1-3

enakñúgtsvtsqñam 1890 GñkviTüasaRsþCaeRcIn)aneFVIkarsikSaeTAelIkaMrsμI; karbeb aj nigkarbba ÚnfamBltamry³lMhGakaskñúgTMrg;Carlk. Bt manedlttyl)anbikarrsavrcav enh)anpþl;kmnitcaercindl;karyl;dwgrbs;eyigcmebahtmrg;gatum. ]bkrn_myy EdleK erbiedim,igegát)atuputenhkwbmbg;kamrsμikatut duc rub2. vacabmbg;ekvmyyedlxül;pakercin RtUv)aneKdkecj. enaebledlbnþhelah³bir RtUv)aneKtP ab ;etarkrbpbedlmancnita x<s;bnþh EdlmanbnÞúkGviC manrtuv)anekehaeqμahfa katut EdlCaGñkbeBa jkamrsμi emilminexij. kamrsμikatutkwcakamrsμiedltajetarkbnþhelah³ EdlmanbnÞúkviC man EdleK [eqμahfa GaNUt Edlvaqøgkat;rn myyehiybnþefvidmeniretacugmçagetoténbmbg;. enaebl EdlkaMrsμIeTAbuképÞeRsabd¾BiessenaH vabegáitcalkçn³bba ÚnBnøWd¾xøaMgmYy (a strong fluorescence) b BnøWd¾PøWmYy. enakñúgbiesafxøhbnþhelah³edlmanbnþúkgkáisnibir nigemedkmyy KWRtUv)aneKbEnßm etaepñkxagerkaénbmbg;kamrsμikatut emilrub2. rub2 bmbg;kamrsμikatutedlmanedngkáisni Edlkat;EkgeTAnwgTisedAénkaMrsμIkatUt nig Ednm:aej:TicxagkñugnimitþsBaØa N nig S smkal;[b:ulxagecig nigxagt,úgénemedk. kamrsμikatut nwgbuketacugmçagénbmbg;enartg;cmnuc A edaymanvtþmanénednm:aej:ticmyy ehiyenacmnuc C enaebledlmanvtþman énedngkáisni nigenacmnuc B enaebledlkμan EdnenAxageRkA rw enaebledlman\t iblénedngkáisni nigednm:aej:ticlubelikñaetavij etamk. enaebledlednm:aej:ticebik ehiyedngkáisnibit kamrsμikatutbukcmnuc A. enaebl EdlmanEtEdnGKÁisnIebIkkaMrsμIbukcMnuc C. enaebledlednm:aej:ticnigedngkáisnibitb ena 1-4

ebledlvaebiktamgbir b k¾enaebledlvamanlmnwg duecñhvalub\t iblkñaetavijetamk kamrsμi enahbuketacmnuc B. tamrtwsþieglicrtum:aej:tic karefviclnarbs;ggáfatu EdlmanbnÞúk KWRbRBwtþeTAdUcemEdkEdrehIyGaceFVIGnþrkmμCamYy EdnGKÁIsnInigEdnm:aej:Tictamry³kEnøg Edlvaqøgkat;eTotpg. edaysarkamrsμikatutrtuv)antajedaybnþhelah³ EdlmanbnÞúkviC manehiyrtuv)an rujrcanetavijedaybnþhelah³edlmanbnþúkgvic man enahvar)akdcamanpþúknuvpakl it Edlman bnþúkgvic man. eyigcat;tukpakl it EdlmanbnÞúkGviC mantamgenhfacaeglicrtug. rub 3 bgðajbiplb:hbal;énr)aemedketaelikamrsμikatut. rubvitucncatigg;ekøsmñak; eqμah Joseph John Thomson )anerbibmbg; kamrsμikatutmyy ehiycmenhdwgrbs;kat;birtwsþieglicrtum:aej:tic edim,ikmnt;plefob énbnþúk GKÁisnIeTAnwgm:as éneglicrtugnimyy². cmnynedlkat;elikeligenahkw - 1,76. 10 8 C/g Edl C KitCaKULM EdlCaxñatrbs;bnÞúkGKÁisnI. cmenkéenakñúgbiesafmyycmnyn EdleK)an GnuvtþenAcenøaHBIqñaM 1908 dl;qñam 1917 elak R.A. Millikan )anrkexijbnþúkéneglicrtug myymantmélesμi -1.60.10 C. BITinñn½yenH Kat;)an KNna m:aséneglicrtugmyy -19 tamrubmnþducxagerkam m:aséneglicrtugmyy= bnþúk bnþúk¼m:as 1,60 10 1,76 10 19 = 8 = 9,09.10-28 g m:asenhkwcam:asedltucbmput. 1-5

2>2 vitüúskmμ enaqñam 1895 rubvitucncatigalwm:g;mñak;eqμah Wilhelm Rontgen )ankt;smkal; exij fa kamrsμikatutkwbnþal[ekvnigelah³beba jkamrsiμminfmμta. karbeba jkmedavitüúskmμ EdlmanfamBlx<s;enH )anføúhculetakñúgrubfatuehiy)anefvi[bn exμaenarmub½t bnþhputurkahvi nwgbnþal[manpabxuskñarbs;sarfatucaercin edim,iegaymanbnøw. edaysaretkamrsμi TaMgenHminGaccaMgRtLb;edayemEdk)aneT duecñhvamingacmanpakl it EdlmanbnÞúkdUcCa kamrsμikatutenahet. elak Rontgen )an[eqμahvafacakamrsμi X BIeRBaHEtkaMrsμIrbs;va minrtuv)aneksáal;. erkaymkminyurb:unμanbnþab;bikarrsavrcavrbs;elak Rontgen ehiyeblenahman elak Antoine Becquerel EdlCasaRsþacarürUbviTüamñak;enATIRkug):arIs)ancab;epþImsikSaBI lkçn³pøwrbs;sarfatu. Kat;)anrkeXIjfakarpÞúHEdlbNþal[mankar rmubt½ BIeRkAy:agRkas; enabnþhputurkahvi CYnkalman erkahfñak;etotpgcmebahsarfatusut G uyra:j:úm EdlbNþal[va eligexμa ebietahbicakμankarcmrujbikamrsμikatutk¾eday. edaykamrsμi X EdlCakaMrsμI)anmkBI smasfatug uyr:aj:um KWmanfamBlx<s; ehiymingacgakedaysaremedkeluiy b:uenþva xuskñabikamrsμi X BIeRBaHvaelc eligedayékég.sissmñak;rbs;elak Becquerel eqμah Marie Curie )anesñieqμaheligfa vitüúskmμedim,ibibn nabi karbnsayedayékégrbs;pak l itb vitüúskmμ. bnþab;mkedaysaretfatunimyy²bnsayedayékégrbtikmμvitüúskmμenah RtUv)aneK[eQμaHfa vitüúskmμ. kamrsμi 3 RbePTRtUv)anbegáIteLIgedaykarbMEbksarFatuviTüúskmμdUcCaGuyr:aj:ÚmCa edim. kamrsμibirkñúgcmenamkamrsμitamgbikwrtuv)angakecjedaysarbnþhelah³ EdlmanbnÞúk vic man emilrub4.kamrsμi α manpþúkpakl itedlmanbnþúkvic man EdleK[eQμaHfaPaKl itα duecñhvartuvefvi[manlmgak edaybnþhedlmanbnþúkvic man. kamrsμi β b PaKl it β KWCaeGLicRtug ehiyrtuv)anefvi[gakedaybnþhelah³ EdlmanbnÞúkGviC man. vitüúskmμ RbePTTI 3 manpþúknuvkamrsμiedlmanfamblx<s;edlek[eqμahfakamrsμi γ. duckamrsμi X Edr kamrsμi γ KμanbnÞúkeT ehiyk¾kμanplb:hbal;edaysarednxagerkaet. 1-6

rub 4 RbePTbIy:agrbs;kaMrsμIEdlbeBa j edayfatuvitüúskmμ. kamrsμi β manpþúknuvpak l itedlmanbnþúkgvic man eglicrtug ehiy duecñhvartuv)antajedaybnþhelah³ Edlman bnþúkvic man. cmebahrn BitR)akdenAEpñk mçagetotsmrab;kamrsμi α vamanbnþúkvic man ehiyrtuv )anektaj[etarkbnþhelah³ EdlmanbnÞúkGviC man. edaysarkamrsμi γ KμanbnÞúkpøÚvrbs; vakwkμanplb:hbal;edaygkáisnixagerkaenhet. 2>3 RbUtug nignwtrtug mkrtwmedimtsvtsqñam 1900 lkçn³biry:agéngatumrtuv)anekbkrsayy:agc,as; favamanpþúkeglicrtugehiyvamancrnþgkáisninwt. edim,irksapabnwtgkáisnigatummyy RtUv EtmanbnÞúkbUk nigbnþúkdkesμikña. duecñhelak Thomson )anesñieligfa GatUmmYyeKGaccat; TukfaCaGatUmÉksNæanehIyes<orviC manénrubfatu EdlmanenAkñúgeGLicRtug KWRtUv)aneK bgáb;ductmbamg)aycurerkomedlekbgáb;enakñúgnmmyygba wg emilrub5 efviebbenhrtuv)anek ehaeqμahfatmrg;nmmyydmu (plum pudding model) ehiycartwsþiedlekttylykcaercinqñammk ehiy. KMeragenHRsedogKñanwgkartMerobrbs;RKab;BN exμaenakñúgepørskanak. enaqñam1910 GñkrUbviTUrbs;RbeTs New Zealand mñak;eqμah Ernest Rutherford Edl )ansiksacamyyelak Thomson enasklvitüal½y Cambridge )ansmerccitþerbipakl it α edim,ibinitüemilbitmrg;rbs;gatum. elak Rutherford rymcamyycmnyykarrbs;kat;eqμah Hans Geiger nigsisserkay]tþmsiksarbs;kat;mñak;etot eqμah Ernest Marsden )anefvibiesafn_ CaeRcInedayeRbIsnøwkmasesþIg² nigsnøwkelah³d¾ét²mkefvicatmruy smrab;pakl it α EdleK ykmkbirbpbedlmanfatuvitüúskmμ rub6. eblenaheksegátexijfa 1-7

bnþúkvic manrkb;dnþb;eliépþrbs;dmumul rub5³ KMrUGatUmrbs;elak Thomson EdlCYnkalRtÚv)aneKBiBN nafa ducca KMrUénnMmYyduM. eglicrtúgcaercinrtúv)anbgáb;enakñúgdumnmmyyedlmanbnþúkvic man RKb;dNþb;elI épþrbs;va. rub 6 (a) karkmnt;tamry³karefvibiesafrbs;elak Rutherford edim,i vas;bikarbrgay énpakl it α tam ry³snøwkmasmyydmu. PaKl it α PaKeRcInqøgkat; tamry³snøwk masmanlmgaktictycb KμanlMgak. manetbirbib:uenñahedlrtuvefvi[gakedaymmud¾fm. CYnkal manpakl itα RtUv)anRtlb;gakeTAeRkayvij. (b)carubbrgikénpakl itα kñúgkarqøgkat;b karefvi[ manlmgakedayénvyu:. PaKl itpakercin)antmluhculsnøwkenahtamgpakl itmingakecj TaMgPaKl it Edlgak ecjtictyc.b:uenþtamgebl)aj;tamgeblerkay)aj;pakl it α enahkwenaray):ay b k¾gakecj edaybegáitcammud¾fmmyy. enakñúg]tahrn_ xøhpakl it)anbnþkñacaerogrhuttamtiseda Edlva)anmk enhkwcakarrkexijd¾kyr[pjak;ep IlbMputenAkñúgGatUmKMrUrrbs;elak Thomson ehiybnþúkvic manrbs;gatumkwsayxøamgnas;edlpakl itα vic mankyretqøgkat;tamry³ snøwk EdlmanlMgaktictYc.edIm,IdkRsg;RbtikmμdMbUgrbs;RutherfordenAeBlEdlniyay BIrbk KMehIjEdlfavaminKUr[eCOeTenAeBlEdlGñk)aj;RKab;mYymanGgát;p it #% sg;tiem:rt smeda etarkrkdascutmat;etmyysnøwkehiyefvi[smbkrkab;enhnwwgrtlb;mkbukgñkégvijenah. 1-8

erkaymketotelak Rutherford GacBnül;)anBIlT plénbiesafbrgaypakl it α tamkmrufμimyyrbs;gatum. eyagetatamelak Rutherford GatUmPaKeRcInRtUvEtCalMh TeTr. karbnül;fa etiehtugvi)ancapakl it α ercinelislb;)anqøgkat;snøwkmas edayman lmgaktictycb KμanlMgakenaH. elak Rutherford )anesñireligfa bnþúkvic manrbs;gatum TaMgGs; KWsßitenAkñúgéNVy:U EdlCasñÚlkNþalkkmYy ( a dense central core) enakñúggatum. eblnaedlpakl it α mkciténvy:umyyenakñúgkarefvibiesafbrgayenah vaefvi[mankmlamg cmranecjd¾xøamgmyy ehiyduecñhlmgakrbs;va k¾xøamgedr. mü:agvijetotpakl it α EdleFVI dmenireq<ahrtg;etarkénvy:u nwgrtuv)anrcanecjtamgrsug ehiytisedarbs;vak¾rcas mkvijedr. PaKl itedlmanbnþúkvic manenakñúgénvy:u KWRtUv)aneK[eQμaHfaRbUtug. enakñúgkar BiesaFdac;edayELkmYyvaRtUv)aneKrkeXIjfa RbUtugnImYy²mancMnYnbnÞúkesμI²KñadUceGLic RtugEdr ehiymanm:as 1,67252 x 10-24 g KWRbEhlnwg 1840 dgénm:asrbs;eglicrtug Edlman bnþúk pþúykña. cmebahkargegátenacmnucenhgñkvitüasarsþbicarnaetaeligatumducxagerkamenh m:as énénvy:umyypsmeligbim:as PaKeRcInénGatUmTaMgmUl b:uenþénvy:upþúkmadrbs;gatumetrbehl 1/10 b:uenñah. eyiggacsmedgvimartrbs;gatum nigm:uelkultamxñat 13 SI EdleKehAfa BIkUEm:Rt ehiy 1 pm = 1 x 10 m. kamgatummyykwmanrbevgrbehl -12 100 pm cmenké kaménénvy:ugatumkwrbehl 5 x 10-3 pm. eyiggacelikyktmhmedl Tak;TgénGatUmmYy nig énvy:urbs;vaedayrsém:fa RbsinebIGatUmmYyCaTMhMrbs;sþatGULaMBik madénénvy:urbs;va KWGaceRbobeFob)aneTAnwgfμb:Rb:HTwk (marble) d¾tucmyy. enaebledlrbutugrtuv)anek kmnt;rbmedn[ enartwménvy:uéngatumenaheglicrtugnwgrtuveksμan facaeglicrtugedl RtUvray):ayenACMu vij énvy:uedlq aybivaxøhedr. bbaøtiénkamgatumkwmansarrbeyacn_xøamgnas;kñúgkarefvibiesafn_ b:uenþvaminkyrbba ak; fagatummankar cgsmb½n b manépþkmnt;)anl enahet. enaeblerkayetot eyignwgeronbi tmbn;xagerkaéngatumkwvatak;tg etanwggviedlminc,as; (fuzzy). TMrg;GatUmKMrYrrbs;elak Rutherford )anbnsl;nuvbbaðad¾fmmyy EdlminTan;)anedaH Rsay. bbaðaenahkw bbaðagatumguirdyesnedlcagatummyysambaøbmput ehiymanetrbutug myy niggatumeglüúm EdlmanEtRbUtugBIr. duecñhplefobcam:aséngatumeglüúm niggatum 1-9

μi GIuRdUEsnKW 2:1 edaysareglicrtugkw RsalCagRbUtug duecñhkar Eckm:as; GatUmmicKW ekgacecal)an b:uenþetahbicay:agnak¾edaykarbitplefobkw 4:1. elak Rutherford niggñkdétetot)an (postulated)fartuvetmanpakl itbgágatummyyrbept etotenakñúgénvy:u GatUm. PsþútagKW RtUv)anpþl;[edayrUbviTUmñak;epSgeToteQμaH James Chadwick enakñúgqñam 1932. rub7 RbUtug nignwtrtug éngatummyykw RtUv)anx b;enakñúgénvy:ud¾tucbmputmyy. eglicrtugedlekbgðajenh CaBBkEdlenACMuvijéNVy:U. enaeblelak Chadwick )anbmebksnøwkesþigmyyénelah³ebrilüúm edaypakl it α eblenahrbtikmμvitüúskmμ EdlmanfamBld¾x<s;RsedogKñaeTAnwgkaMrsμI γ RtUv)anbeBa j edayelah³. karbiesafn_erkaymketot)anbgðaj[ exijfakamrstamgenah BitCamanpÞúknUv PaKl itbgágatumrbeptti3myyepsgetotedlelak)aneha eqμahfanwtrtug BIeRBaHeK)anrk PsþútageXIjfavaCaPaKl itedlmanbnþúkgkáisninwt ehiymanma:sfmcagrbutugetbnþic bnþüc. Gaf km)amgénplefobm:as\lúvenhekgacefvikarbnül;)an. enakñúg énvy:ueglüúm manrbutugbir nignwtrtugbir b:uenþenakñúgénvy:ugiurduesnmanetrburtugmyyehiy KμanNWtRtugeT duecñhpl efobrbs;vakw 4:1. 1-10

I tarag 1 ma:s nigbnþúkénpakl itb gágatum bnþúk PaKl it m:as; (g) KitCaKULM (C) xñatbnþúk eglicrtug 9,1095>10-28 -1-1 RbUtug -1,6022.10 1,67252.10-24 + 1,6022.10-19 +1-24 NWtRtug 1,67495. 10 0 0 rub7)anbgðajbi TItaMgrbs;PaKl itbgádmbugtamggs;enakñúggatummyykw RbUtug eglicrtug nignwrtug manpakl itbgágatumdét²etotcaercin b:uenþeglicrtug RbUtug nignwrtug KWCaFatubgábICamUldæanénGatUm EdlmansarsMxan;enAkñúgmuxviC akimivitüa. tarag1 bgðajbim:as nig bnþúkénpakl itdmbugtamgbienh. 3 elxgatum cmnynm:as niggiusutub ekgacsmkal;gatumtamggs;)antamry³cmnynrbutug nigeglicrtugedlvaman. elxgatum EdleKtageday Z KWCacMnYnRbUtugenAkñúgéNVy:UénGatUmnImYy²rbs;FatumYy. enakñúg GatUmNWtmYycMnYn RbUtugKWesμInwgcMnYneGLicRtug duecñhelxgatumk¾bba ak;bicmnyn eglicrtugedlmanvtþmanenakñúggatumenahpgedr. lkçn³smkal;kimirbs;gatummyy Gac[ ekkmnt;bielxgatumrbs;va)an. Ca]TahrN_ elxgatuméngasutkwesμi 7 enhmann½yfa GatUmGasUtNWtnImYy²manRbUtug 7 nigeglicrtug 7 b k¾tamtssn³ epsgetotekfa enael BiPBelakeyIgenHRKb;GatUmTaMgGs;EdlmanRbUtugcMnUn 7 ektmruv[ehaeqμahvafacagasut. cmnynm:asedlektageday A KWCacMnYnsrubrbs;RbUtug nignwtrtugedlmanvtþman EdlmanenAkñúgéNVy:U rbs;gatuménfatumyy. elikelgettmrg;d¾sambaøbmputrbs;giurduesn EdlmanEtRbUtugmYyehIyKμanNWRtug erbahrkb;énvy:uéngatumtamggs;rtúvmantamgrbutug nignwt Rtug. CaTUeTAeKKNnacMnYnm:aseday ³ cmnynm:as = cmnynrbutug + cmnynnwrtug = cmnyngatum + cmnynnwrtug cmnynnwrtugenakñúggatummyykwesμinwgplsgrvag cmnynm:as nigelxgatum b esμi ( A- Z). ]TahrN_m:as rbs;pøúygrkwesμi 19 ehiyelxgatumrbs;vakwesμi 9 bba ak;fa 9 RbUtug 1-11

enakñúgénvy:u duecñhcmnynnwtrtúgenakñúggatum myyrbs;pøúygrkw 19-9 = 10. curkt;smkal;fa elxgatum cmnynnwtrtug nigcmnynm:astamggs;rtuvetcacmnynkt;vic man. GatUménFatumYyminmanm:asdUcKñaTaMgGs;enaHeTeRBaHfa FatuPaKeRcInKWmanGIusUtUb BIr rw ercin GIusUtUb KWGatUmEdlmanelxlMdab;dUcKña b:uenþcmnynm:as;rbs;vaxuskña. ]TahrN_ GIuRdUEsnmanGIusUtUbcMnYnbI myykwgiurduesnfmμta EdlmanEtRbUtugmYy ehiykμannwrtuget. GIusUtUbdWetrüÚmmanRbUtugmYy nignwtrtugmyy cmenké GIusUtUmRTIcUm manrbutugmyy nig NWtRtugBIr. vifiedlgacttylyk)anedim,ikt;smkal;elxlmdab; nigm:asgatumrbs;gatumén FatumYyRtUv)ansMKal;dUcxageRkam³ cmnynm:as; A Z X elxlmdab; duecñhcmebahgiusutubrbs;giurduesneyiggacsresr 1 1 H 2 1 H 3 1 H GIuRdUEsn dwetrüúm RTIcUm Ca]TahrN_mYyepSgeTot curbinitüemiletaeligiusutubsambaøbirrbs; G uyr:aj:úm Edl manm:aserogkñakw 235 nig238. 235 238 92 U 92 U GuIsUtUbTI1KWRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IeFVIerGak;T½rnuyekøEGr nigrkab;ebkgatumic cmenké GIusUtUbTIBIrKWxVH lkçn³cam)ac;smrab;tegvienh. edaymankrnielikelgcmebahgiurduesn Edl maneqμahxus²kñabigiusutubmyyetagiusutubmyy ehiygiusutubénfatukwsmkal;edaycmnynm:as rbs;va. duecñhgiusutubbirxagelikwek[eqμahfa G uyr:aj:úm 235 nigg uyr:aj:úm 238. lkçn³kimiénfatumyy RtUv)aneKkMNt;CadMbUgedayRbUtug nigeglicrtugenakñúggatum rbs;va cmenkénwtrtugminculrymenakñúgbmerbmrylkimienahetenaerkamlkçxnðfmμta. duecñh GIusUtUbénFatudUcKña manlkçn³kiimi rbs;vaduckñakñúgkarbegáitrbepténsmasfatuduckña nigkñúg karbegáinskmμpabduckña. ]TahrN_xageRkamenHbgðajBIkarKNnacMnYnRbUtug NWtRtug nigeglicrtug eday erbielxlmdab; nigelxm:as. 1-12

] TahrN_ 1/1 KNnacMnYnRbUtug NWRtug nigeglicrtugkñúgrbeptkimixagerkamenh. k> 17 199 200 8 O x 80 Hg K 80 Hg cmeliy k> elxlmdab;vaman 8 duecñhvaman 8 RbÚtug. edaycmnynm:askw 17 duecñhcmnynnwrtugkw 17-8= 9 cmnyneglicrtugkwduckñaetanwgcmnynrbutugedrkw 8. x> elxlmdab;kw 80 duecñhvamanrbutugcmnyn 80. m:asrbs;vakw 199 duecñhcmnynnwrtug rbs;vakw 199-80 =119. cmnyneglicrtugkw 80. K> cmnynrbutugéngatumrbs;fatuenhk¾duckñaetanwgcmnuc b EdrKW 80. cmnynnwrtugkw 200-0=120. cmnyn 8 eglicrtugkwduc KñaeTA nwgcmnuc b EdrKW 80.dUecñHRbePTGIusUtUbenAkñúgcMnuc b nig cmnuc c KWmanGIusUtUbEdlman lkçn³kimirsedogkña nig)artedr. lmhat;gnuvtþn_ 63 etimanrbutug NWtRtug nigeglicrtugb:unμanenakñúggiusutubrbs;tg;edg 29 Cu. 4 taragxyb FatuKImIEdleKsÁal;rhUtmkdl;sBVéf enh RbmaNCaCagBak;kNþalKWRtUv)aneKrk exijenakñúgcenøahqñam 1800 nigqñam 1900. kñugkmlúgeblenahgñkkimivitu)ankt;smkal;exijfa FatumYycMnYnmanlkçN³dUcKñaeRcIneTAnwg FatumYycMnYneTot. karyl;dwgbilkçn³erbrbyl CaxYbénlkçN³rUbniglkçN³KImI nigtmruvkaredim,ierobcmbt man EdlGacmanCaeRcInGMBITMrg; niglkçn³énsarfatu nam[mankarbegáitcataragxybenhelig taragxybkwcataragedlfatuna manlkçn³rub niglkçn³kimiduckñartuv)anekdak;enakñúgrkumcamyykña. rub8 bgðajbitaragxyb d¾tmenib EdlFatuTaMgGs;RtUv)aneKtMerobeTAtamelxlMdab; EdleKbgðajenAxagelInimitþ sbaøaénfatukñúgcyredk EdleKehAfaxYb nigkñúgcyrqredlekehafarkum b Rslay GaRs½y eta tampabduckñaenakñúglkçn³kimirbs;va. curcmnamfatu 110, 111 nig 112 KWCaFatuEdleK etibet smeyakenaeblfμi²enh ebietahbicavamintan;maneqμahk¾eday. FatuTaMgGs;RtUv)aneKEckecjCabIBYk KWBYkelah³ Gelah³ nigbbykgmpuetr. elah³ KWCaFatuEdlcMlgkMedA nigcrnþgkáisni)anl cmenkégelah³ vij KWCaFatuEdlmin suvcmlgkmeda nigcrnþgkáisni b k¾cmlgexsay. GMpUETr KWCaFatu EdlmanlkçN³Caelah³pg nigcagelah³pg. rub 8 bgðajfafatupakercin EdlsÁal;KW Caelah³ ehiymanet 17 1-13

Fatub:ueNÑaH EdlCaGelah³ ehiymanet 8 FatuEtb:ueNÑaHEdlCaGMpUETr. tamxyblkçn³rub nigkimirbs;va ERbRbYlCabnþbnÞab;BIeqVgeTAsþaM BIelah³eTAGelah³. rubti8 taragxybtmenib. FatuTaMgGs;RtUv)aneKerobcMGaRs½yeTAtamelxlMdab; EdlenAxag elinimitþsbaøarbs; vaelikelgetgiurduesnecjgelah³kwekdak;enaxagsþambmputéntaragxyb. elah³tamgbircyredk EdlenAxageRkamtaragFM KWRtUv)aneKbegáIteLIg[q aybiek edim,ikmu[ taragxybenahfmebk. karbit Ce KYrEtdak;enA xagerkay La ehiy Th KUrEtdak;enAxagsaþM bnþab;bi Ac. kardak;rkumbielx 1-18 RtUv)an[eyabl;eday IUPAC b:uenþvamintan;rtuv )anekerbicatuetaet. kñúgbribtenheyigerbir)as;sbaøansþg;da U.S. smrab;elxrkumbi 1A-8A ehiybi 1B-8B. cmebaheqμah smrab;fatubi 104-109 KWenACECkKñaenAeLIy. KμaneQμaH NaRtUv)aneKkMNt; smrab;fatubi 110 eta 112 enaeliyet. FatuTaMgGs;KWRtUv)aneKdak;eTAkñúgtaragxYbeTAtamelxRkumdUcCa Rkum 1A, 2A.l.. etahbicay:agnak¾edayedim,i[manpabcak;lak;efmetotenahrkumxøhénfatu KW RtUv)aneK[eQμaHBiess myyepsgetotduccafaturkum 1A man Li Na K Rb Cs nigfrcaedim FatuTaMgenHRtUv)aneK[eQμaHfaelah³ Gal;kaLaMg nigfatuenakñúgrkum 2A ducca Be Mg Ca Sr Ba nig Ra CaedIm KWRtUv)aneKehAeQμaHfaelah³Gal;kalINUETrW b u cmenkéfatuedl 1-14

enakñúgrkum 7A ducca F Cl Br I nig At KWRtUv)aneKsÁal;faCaBBYkGaLÚEsn ehiyfatu enakñúgrkum 8A ducca He Ne Ar Kr Xe nig Rn KWRtUv)aneK[eQμaHfa]sμ½nnicl b ]sμ½nkmr. taragxyb KWCa]bkrN_d¾manRbeyaCn_mYyEdleFVI[lkçN³énFatumanTMnak;TMngKñaCa lkçn³rbb½n nigcyyeyig[efvikartsstaygmbilkçn³kimi)an. eyignwgsiksa[)anlmgiteta eliepñk KnøwHKImIviTüaenACMBUkTI 8. emilkimivitüagnuvtþn_ (Chemistry in Action) enatmb½rti 2-37 BiBN nabibmengeck énfatuenaeliepndi nigenakñúgxøünmnuss. 5 m:uelkul niggiuy:ug cmebahrkb;fatutamggs; man]sμ½nkmret 6b:ueNÑaHenAkñúgRkumTI 8A éntaragxybkwfatu He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe nig Rn EdlmanGtißPaBCaGatUmeTalenAkñúgFmμCati. cmebahehtu plenh ekeha]sμ½n m:unugatum mann½yfagatumetmyy. rubfatupakercin KWbgáeLIgedaym:UelKul b GIuy:ug Edl begáiteday GatUm. 5>1 m:uelkul m:uelkul KWCabNþúMmYyEdlmanGatUmy:agticcMnYnBIrehIymankarerobcMd¾kMNt;mYy edim,icgp ab;kñaeday kmlamgkimi ek[eqμahfasmb½n KImI. tamc,ab;smamartkmnt; m:uelkul myygacmangatuménfatuduckñabir b k¾gatuménfatuepsgkñaercintp ab;kñakñúgplefobkmnt;myy emilepñkti 1>2. duecñhtamniymn½ym:uelkulmyy EdlminEmnCa smasfatumyycam)ac; KWbegáIteLIgBIGatUm énfatucab;bi BIreLIgeTA. Ca]TahrN_]sμ½n GIuRdUEsnKWCaFatusuT myy b:uenþ vaman m:uelkuledlbgáeligbigatumguirdúesncmnynbir. mü:agvijetot Twk KWCasmasFatum:UelKulmYy EdlmanGIuRdUEsn nigguksiuesnkñúgplefobgiurduesnbir nig GuksIuEsnmYy. ducetanwg GatUmEdr m:uelkulkwmanbnþúkgkáisninwt. m:uelkulgiurduesn EdlsresrrUbmnþCa H 2 RtUv)aneK[eQμaHfam:UelKulDIGatUm BIeRBaHvamanEtGatUmBIr. Fatud¾éTeTotEdlCaFmμtamanGtßiPaBCam:UelKulDIGatUmenaHKW N 2 nig O 2 k¾duccafatuenarkumti 7 A ducca F 2, Cl 2, Br 2 nig I 2. CakarBitm:UelKulDIGatUm Gac mangatuménfatubirxuskña]tahrn_ducca HCl nigco. 1-15

m:uelkulpakercinmangatumercincagbir.vagaccagatuménfatuduckña duccagusun ( O 3 ) CaedIm EdlbgáeLIgBIGatUmGuksIuEsncMnYnbI b GacCabnSMénFatuxusKñaBIrb ercin. m:uelkuledlman GatUmeRcInCagBIrRtUv)aneKehAeQμaHm:UelKulb:UlIGatUm duccagusun Twk niggam:uj:ak; KWCa m:uelkulb:uligatum. 5>2m:UelKulKMrU m:uelkulkwtucnas;smrab;eyigsegátedaypþal;. mefüa)aymyyd¾ man RbsiT PaB edim,i emilvaedayepñktetrenah KWeRbIm:UelKulKMrU. RbePTsþg;da BIrénm:UelKul KMrUEdlkMBugEt erbir)as;sbvéf enh KWKMrURKab;)al; cgáw³ rwrubmnþerkag (ball- and- stick) nigkmrubmebjkenøg (space- filling) rub9. rub9 KMrUGatUm)al;- cgáwh rw rubmnþerkag (ball-and-stick) nigkmrugatumbmebjkenøg(spacefilling)énm:uelkulsambaøxøh enakñúgrubmnþerkag (ball-and-stick) GatUmKWRtUv)aneKeFVIBIeQI b RKab;)al;C½r Edlman rn enakñúgenah. eqi rwus½rrtuv)an ekerbitmnag[smb½n KImI. mmuedlekbegáiteligrvaggatum n iggatummanmmusmb½n Rbhak;RbEhlKñakñúgm:UelKulBitEdr. RKab;)al;KWmanTMhMdUcKñaehIy RbePTénGatUmnImYy² KWtMNag[edayBN BiessmYy. 1-16

enakñúggatumkmrubmebjkenøg (space-filling) KWeKtageday)al; EdltP ab;kñaeday Rbdab;cgf<k; duecñhsmb½n KWminGacemIleXIj)aneT. RKab;)al;KWmansmaRtTMhMrbs;va cmebah GatUm. rubmnþerkag (ball-and-stick) bgðajy:agc,as;bikarerobcmgatumtmrg;vimartbi ehiyva gayrsulbegáitnas;. mü:agvijetotrkab;)al; KWbgðajBIPaBminsmamaRtcMeBaHTMhM éngatum. duecñhkmrugatumedlefvibieqi KWbMepIøscenøaHrvagGatUm niggatumenakñúgm:uelkul y:agfm. KMrUbMeBjcenøaHKWCak;lak;Cag BIeRBaHvabgðajBIbMErbMrYlrbs;TMhMGatUm. erkog bnøas;rbs;va KWfavasIueBlNas;kñúgkardak;vaP ab;kña ehiyvamin)anbgðajbititamgvimadbirbs; GatUm)anc,as;las;eT. kñúgbribtenheyignwgerbipakercinnuvrubmnþerkag (ball-and-stick). 5>3 GIuy:ug GIuy:ug KWCaRbePTmanbnÞúkmYyEdleKbegáItvaeLIgBIGatUm b m:uelkulnwtmyyenaebl EdleGLicRtug)ancMeNj b )at;bg;edaysaretmanbmerbmrylkimi. cmnynrbutugedlmanbnþúk vic manenakñúgénvy:uéngatummyyenaetrksatméldedlkñúgebledlmanbmerbmrylkimi ek[eqμah farbtikmμkimi b:uenþeglicrtugedlmanbnþúkgvic mangac)at; b cmenj. k ar)at;bg;eglicrtugmyy b ercinbigatumnwt egaylt plca kacug myy GIuy:ugmYyEdlmanbnÞúkviC man. ]TahrN_dUcCa GatUm Na Gac)at;eGLicRtugmYy y:agrh½sedim,ikøayetacakacug sudüúm EdleKsresrtageday Na. + GatUm Na GIuy:ug Na + 11 RbUtug 11 RbUtug 11 eglicrtug 10 eglicrtug mü:agvijetotgaj:úg KWCaGIuy:ugmYyEdlbnÞúksrubrbs;va KWGviC manedaysaretcmnyn eglicrtugekineligmyy. ] TahrN_GatUmkørcMeNjeGLicRtugmYyedIm,IkøayeTACaGIuy:ugkør ( Cl - ). GatUm Cl GIuy:ug Cl - 17 RbUtug 17 RbUtug 17 eglicrtug 18 eglicrtug 1-17

GMbilsMl (NaCl)KWRtUv)aneKehAeQμaHfa Casma sfatugiuy:ug BIeRBaHvabegáIteLIgBI kacug niggaj:úg. GatUmmYyGac)an b cmenjeglicrtugmyy b ercin ]TahrN_GIuy:ugEdlbegáIteLIg edaykar)at; b cmenjeglicrtugedlercincagmyyenahkw GIuy:ug Mg 2+, Fe 3+,S nig 2- N. -3 GIuy:ugTaMgenHk¾dUcCaGIuy:ug Na + nigcl EdrKWeK[eQμaHfa GIuy:ugm:UNUGatUm BIeRBaHvamanEt - GatUmmYy. rub10 bgðajbibnþúkrbs;giuy:ugm:unugatummyycmnyn edaymankrni elikelgbir b bi elah³mantmenarbegáitcakacug cmenkégelah³mantmenarbegáitcagaj:úg. CagenHeTAeTotGatUmBI b ercingacpsmkñaedim,ibegáitcagiuy:ugmyy EdlmanbnÞúksrub vic man b GviC man. GIuy:ugb:UlIGatUm duccagiuy:ug OH -, CN,nigGIuy:ug - NH + 4 KWCaGIuy:ug EdlmanGatUmeRcInCagmYy. rub9 GuIy:ugm:UNUGatUmsmBaزEdl)anerobcMGaRs½yeTAtamTItaMgrbs;vaenAkñúgtaragxYb. 2+ curkt;smkal; fa GIuy:ug)artmanGatUm2 Hg 2. 6 rubmnþkimi GñkKImIeRbI rubmnþkimi edim,ibba ak;bibnsmrwsmaspakénm:uelkul nigsmasfatugiuy:ug CanimitþsBaØaKImI. tamkarbnsmenaheyigminemncg;niyayetetaelietfatu Edlmanvtþman b:uenñahet b:uenþeyigefmtamgcg;niyaybiplefobrbs;gatumtamglay EdlcUlpSMpgEdr. ena TIenHeyIgkMBugEtmankarykcitþTukdak;eTAelIrUbmnþTaMgBIrRbePT KWrUbmnþm:UelKul nigrubmnþ gay. 1-18

6>1 rubmnþm:uelkul rubmnþm:uelkulmyy bgðajnuvcmnynbitr)akdéngatumrbs;fatunimyy² enakñúgxñatd¾tuc bmputrbs;sarfatumyy. enakñúgkarbipaksabim:uelkultamggs;rbs;eyig ]TahrN_nImYy² RtUv)aneK[mkCamYyKñanwgrUbmnþm:UelKul EdleKdak;enAkñúgvg;Rkck. duecñh H 2 KWCarUbmnþm:UelKul smrab;fatugiurduesn O 2 KWCarUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;GuksIuEsn O 3 KWCarUbmnþ m:uelkulrbs;gusun ehiy H 2 O KWCarUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;Twk. snþssn_edlsresrcaelx KWbBa ak;bicmnyngatum Edl tamgenakñúgfatumyyenah. cmebah O KμansnÞsSn_CaelxeTenAkñúgTwk BIeRBaHmanEtGatUm GuksIuEsnmYyKt;EdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgm:UelKulTwk duecñhelxmyyrbs;va RtUv)aneKlubecal BIrUbmnþm:UelKul. curcamfaguksiuesn O 2 niggusun O 3 KWCaeRKagénFatu EdlmanTMrg;eRcInrbs;GuksIuEsn. vismrub (allotrpe) KWTMrg;Ebøk²KñamYyrWeRcInrbs;Fatu myy. TMrg;eRKagénFatuBIrrbs;kabUnKWeBRC nigrkahvit ehiymanpabxuskñay:agxøamg minrtwm EtlkçN³KImIrbs;vab:ueNÑaHeTEfmTaMgtMéleTotpg. 6>2 rubmnþgay rubmnþm:uelkuléngiurduesnebrguksiut EdlCasarFatumYyeKeRbICaFatuRbqaMgCMgWkøay nigcapñak;garbnsr smrab;kartm)aj nigefvisk;enahmanrubmnþh 2 O 2. rubmnþenhbba ak;fa m:uelkul GIuRdUEsnEBrGuksIutnImYy²manpÞúkGatUmGIuRdUEsnBIr niggatumguksiuesnbir. plefobén GatUmGIuRdUEsn nigguksiuesnenakñúgm:uelkulenahkw 2:2 b 1:1. rubmnþgayéngiurduesn EBrGuksIutKW HO. duecñh rubmnþgay R)ab;eyIgfa etimanfatu NaxøH EdlmanvtþmanenAkñúg rubmnþm:uelkulenah nig BIpleFobMnYnGatUmsrubEdlgaybMput b:uenþvamincam)ac;cmebahcmnyn BitR)akd éngatum ena kñúgm:uelkulenahet.]tahn_myy epsgetotkweyigbicarnaetaelismasfatugiurdasiun (N 2 H 4 ) EdlRtUv)aneKeRbI CasarFatueqH r:uekt. rubmnþgay éngiurdasiunkw NH 2. ebietahbica pl efobéngasut nig GIuRdUEsnKW 1:2 TaMgenAkñúgrUbmnþm:UelKul N 2 H 4 TaMgenA kñúgrubmnþgay NH 2 manetrubmnþ m:uelkuletedlr)ab;eyiggmbicmnynbitr)akdéngatum N EdlmanBIr nig GatUm H EdlmanbYn EdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgm:UelKUlGIuRdasIun. rubmnþgay KWCarUbmnþKImIEdlsamBaØbMputeKEtgEtsresrvaedaybnßy snþssn_ena kñúgrubmnþm:uelkuletacarubmnþedlmancmnynsrubtucbmput. rubmnþm:uelkul KWCarUbmnþBitR)akd 1-19

rbs;m:uelkul. eyignwg)anexijena CMBUkTIbIenAeBlEdlGñkKImI vipaksmasfatu EdleKmin sáal;myy ehiycanic CakalCMhandMbUg KWkar kmnt;rubmnþgay rbs;smasfatuenah. smrab;m:uelkulcaercin rubmnþm:uelkul nigrubmnþgaykwcarubmnþetmyy ehiyduckña. ]TahrN_ ducca H 2 O, NH 3, CO 2 nigch 4 CaedIm. ]TahrN_BIrxageRkamenHKWvaTak;TgeTAniwgkarsresrrUbmnþm:UelKulBIKMrUm:UelKul nig karsresrrubmnþgay BIrUbmnþm:UelKul. cmnam BakürUbmnþgay (empirical) mann½yfacarubmnþedldkrsg;tambiesafn_. eyignwg exijvaenacmbykti3 rubmnþgaykw kmnt;edaykarbiesafn_. GIuRdUEsn kabun GuksIuEsn kør emtanul kør:upm rub10 ]TahrN_ 1/2 cursresrrubmnþm:uelkulénemtanuledlcafaturmlaysriragá nigca FatuRbqaMgnwgkMNkBIrUbmnþ erkag(ball- and- stick)duckñúgrub. cmeliy mangatumkabunmyy GatUmGIuRdUEsnbYn niggatumguksiuesnmyy. duecñhrubmnþ m:uelkulrbs;vakw CH 4 O. etahbicay:agnak¾edayvifisþg;damyykñúgkarsresrrubmnþm:uelkul smrab;emtanulkw CH 3 OH BIeRBaHvabgðajBIrebobénGatUmnImYy² karcgsmb½n enakñúgm:uelkul. lmhat;gnuvtþn_ sresrrubmnþm:uelkulénkør:upmedlrtuv)anekerbicaggáfaturmlay nigpñak;garsmgat myy. rubmnþ erkagrbs;kør:upmkwducmanbgðajkñúgrub. ]TahrN_ 1/3 sresrrubmnþgaysmrab;m:uelkulducxagerkam k> C 2 H 2 (EdlRtÚv)aneKeRbIR)as;enAkñúgkarpSacnøúH x> C 6 H 12 O 6 (CasarFatumYyEdl edirtyca sárenakñúgqam) K> N 2 O. ( ]sμ½nsmenic ) 1-20

U cmeliy k> enakñúggaestielnmangatumkabunbir niggatumgiurduesnbir. edayeck snþssn_ nigbireyig TTYl)an rubmnþgaykw CH. x> enakñúgkøúykusmangatumkabuncmnyn6 GatUmGIuRdUEsncMnYn 12 niggatum GuksIuEsncMnYn6. edayecksnþssn_ nwg 6 eyigttyl)an rubmnþgaykw CH 2 O. curkt;smkal; RbsinebIeyIgEck snþssn_nwg3 eyignwgttyl)anrubmnþgaykw C 2 H 4 O 2 ebietahbicaplefob éngatumkabun GIuRdUEsn nigguksiuesnenakñúgm:uelkul C 2 H 4 O 2 KWdUcKñaenAkñúgm:UelKul C 6 H 12 O 6 (1:2:1), C 2 H 4 O 2 KWminEmnCarUbmnþgayCageKbg s;etbierbahsnþssn_rbs;va KWminEmnsßitenA kñúgplefobcmnynsrubtuccagekbg s;et. K> edaysarsnþssn_enakñúgm:uelkul N 2 O KWmancMnYnpleFobsrubtUc bmputryceta ehiy duecñhrub mnþgay ebs; N 2 O KWdUcKñanwgrUbmnþm:UelKulrbs;va. lmhat;gnuvtþn_ cursesrrubmnþgaycmebahkaehvgiun (C 8 H 10 N 4 O 2 )CafñaMmYy EdleK)anrk exijenakñúget nigkaehv. rubmnþrbs;smasfatugiuy:ug Canic CakalKWdUcKñanwgrUbmnþgayrbs;vaEdr erbahsmas FatuGIuy:ugrbs;vaminmanpÞúknvÉktam:UelKulNalak;)aMgenaHeT. ]TahrN_PaKsMNakrwgmYy rbs;sudüúmkøry (NaCl)manpÞúknUvcMnYnesμIKñaénGIuy:ug Na + - niggiuy:ugkør Cl ehiyrtuv)anek tmerobcasmnaj;vimartbi. enakñúgsmasfatuducenhkwmanplefob kacugnig Gaj:uúgKW 1:1 duecñh smasfatuenahkwmanbnþúkgkáisninwt. ducgñkgacexijvaenakñúgrub11 fakμangiuy:ug Na + enakñúg NaClNamYyRtUv)anpSMCamYyGIuy:ug Cl EtmYyenaHeT. karbitgiuy:ug - Na nimyy² + KWcgesμI²Kña eday GIuy:ugkør Cl cmnyn 6 enacmuvij b Rcasmkvij - (Vice Versa). duecñh NaCl KWCarUbmnþgaysMrab;sUdüÚmkørY. enakñúgsmasfatugiuy:ugepsg²etottmrg;bitr)akdrbs;vagac xuskña b:uenþkartmerobkacug niggaj:úg KWfasmasFatuTaMgenaHmanbnÞúkGKÁisnINWt. curcmnamfa bnþúkenaelikacug niggaj:úgkwminrtuv)anekbgðajenakñúgrubmnþsmrab;smasfatugiuy:uget. edim,i[smasfatugiuy:ugmanbnþúkgkáisninwt luhrtaetplbukbnþúktamggs;enakñúg kacug niggaj:úgesμisunü ebisincabnþúkenaelikacug niggaj:úgmanbnþúkxuskña eyigrtuvefvitam k,ünducxagerkamedim,iefvi[bnþúkrbs;vamanbnþúkgkáisninwt ³ snþssn_rbs;kacugkwmancmnyn esμikñaetanwgbnþúkenaeligaj:úg ehiysnþssn_rbs;gaj:úg KWmancMnYnesμIKñaeTAnwgbnÞúkenAelI kacug. RbsinebIbnÞúkmancMnYnesμIKñadUecñHkarsresrsnÞsSn_mincaM)ac;eT. k,ünxagerkamenh 1-21

KW ekgacerbi)anebi kalnarubmnþrbs;smasfatugiuy:ugkwcarubmnþgay duecñhsnþssn_ekrtuvet bnßyva[mkenakñúgtméledlmanplefobtucbmput.cureyigbicarnaetaeli]tahrn_myy cmnyn ducxagerkam - b:utasüúmrbumy (KBr) kacugb:utasüúm K + niggajú:grbumy Br psmkñaedim,ibegáit - CasmasFatuGIuy:ug KBr. plbukbnþúkkw +1+(-1) = 0 duecñhkarsresrsnþssn_ KWmincaM)ac;eT ducenhrubmnþ rbs;vakw KBr. - ZnI 2 kacug Zn niggajú:g 2+ I psmkñaedim,ibegáit - ZnI 2 (sgá½sirbúmy). plbukbnþúk éngiuy:ug Zn myy niggiuy:ug I myy KW - 2+(-1)=+1 edim,i[bnþúkesμisunü 2+ eyigrtuvetkunbnþúkngaj:úgnwg2 ehiybenßm snþssn_ 2 cmebahnimitþsbaøa smrab;guiy:ut duecñhrubmnþsmrab; 1é sgá½sigiuy:udy KW ZnI 2. - GaluymIj:ÚmGuksIut kacugkw Al ehiygaj:úgguksiuesnkw 3+ O KMnYstagxageRkam 2- enhgaccyy[ eyig[kmnt;bisnþssn_smrab;smasfatuedlbegáiteligedaykacug niggaj:úg. plbukénbnþúktamggs;kw 2(+3)+3(-2)=0 duecñhrubmnþgaluymij:úmguksiutkw Al 2 O 3. rub11 a) TMrg;énGgÁFaturwg NaCl b) karbitkacugkwmantmnak;tmngcamyygaj:úg. TaMg a) nig b) KWCaEsVrtUc CagEdlmanvtþmanenAkñúgGIuy:ug Na + nigcaesvrfmcagedlmanvtþmangiuy:ug Cl - 1-22

7 karehaeqμahsmasfatu enaebledlkimivitüa KWCaviTüasaRsþEdleTIbEtnwgekIteLIg ehiycmnynsmasfatu EdlRtUv)aneKsÁal;mancMnYntictYc b:uenñah duecñhvamankargayrsyl etkñúgkarcgcamva. eqμah myycmnyn KW RtUv)aneKdkRsg;ecjBIlkçN³rUb rw edimkmenitrbs;va. ]TahrN_dUcCa TwkedaHeKamaejsüÚm ]sμ½nsmenic fμkme)ar nig esda lagrbyscaedim. sbvéf enhcmnynsmasfatuedlrtuv)aneksáal;c,as;mancmnyncag 13 lansmasfatu. b:uenþca smnagl Edr EdlvamincaM)ac;kñúgkarcaMeQμaHrbs;vaenaHeT. CaeRcInqñaMmkehIy EdlGñkKImI )aneckrbbn½ y:agc,as;myyedim,iehaeqμahsarfatukimi. ehiyc,ab;enah RtUv)an ekttylsáal;catueta ehiyrtuv)anekerbir)as;edim,ismrylkñúgkartmnak;tmngkñakñúgcmenamgñkkimi TaMgGs; ehiyva)anpþl;nuvmefüa)ayd¾mansar³rbeyacn_myy edim,ibitpøaketaelisarfatu nimyy². Cakic cab;epþimbipaksabikarehaeqμahfatu nigsmasfatukimi CadMbUgeyIgRtUvEjk[ dac;rvagsmasfatusriragá niggsriragá. smasfatusriragácatuetacasmasfatuedlmanfatu kabunpsmcamyyfatud¾ét²etotduc CaGuIiRdUEsn/GasUt/GuksIuEsn nigs<an;f½rcaedim. erkabienhsmasfatudétetot RtÚv)aneKcat;fñak;Ca smasfatugsriragá. b:uenþsmasfatuxøh EdlmanpÞúkCatikabUn duccakabunm:unuguksiut (CO) kabundiguksiut (CO 2 ) kabundis ulpit (CS 2 ) smasfatuedlman bgáúmsüanu (CN )/ bgáúmkabunat - CO 2 3 nwgbgáúmkabunatggasuit (HCO )KWRtUv)aneKcat;TukfaCasmasFatuGsrIragÁ. etahbicakarehaeqμahsmasfatu 3 sriragá nigminrtuv)anekbipaksarhutdl;cmbukti 24 k¾edayk¾eyignwgerbi smasfatusriragáxøh edim,ibba ak;biekalkarn_kimitamry³esovepa enhedr. edim,ierobcm nigefvi[manpabgayrsylcmebahkarpsgerbgrbs;eyigkñúgkarehaeqμah smasfatuenah eyiggacecksmasfatugsriragácabynfñak;kw smasfatugiuy:ug smasfatu m:uelkul GasIut)as nig smasfatuguirdat. 7>1 smasfatugiuy:ug enakñúgepñkti2>5 eyig)aneronrycmkehiyfa smasfatugiuy:ug KWbegáIteLIgedaykacug GIuy:ugviC man niggaj:úg GIuy:ugGviC man. edaysarmankarelikelgd¾smxan;myyéngiuy:ug Gam:Uj:Úm NH 4+ kacugtamggs; EdlcMNab;GarmμN_rbs;eyIg KWdkRsg;ecjBIGatUmelah³. 1-23

_ kacugelah³ykeqμah rbs;vaecjbifatu. ]TahrN_ Fatu eqμahkacug Na sudüúm Na GIuy:ugsUdüÚm b kacugsudüúm + K b:utasüúm K GIuy:ugb:UtasüÚm b kacugb:utasüúm + Mg m:aej:süúm Mg GIuy:ugm:aej:süÚm b kacugm:aej:süúm 2+ Al GaluymIj:Úm Al GIuy:ugGaluymIj:Úm b kacuggaluymij:úm 3+ smasfatugiuy:ugcaercinkwcasmasfatuetvfatu b CasmasFatuEdlbegáIteLIgBIFatu E tbirb:uenñah. smasfatubnsm FatudMbUgKWRtUv)aneK[eQμaHfaCakacugelah³pSMCamYyGaj:úg Gelah³. duecñh NaCl KWCa sudüúmkøry. ekdak;eqμah Gaj:úg enahedayykepñkdmbugéneqμah rbs;fatukørehiybenßmeday GYr. KBr, ZnI 2 nigal 2 O 3 k¾casmasfatubnsmpgedr. tarag2 bgðajbinamvløigyréngaj:úgm:unugatumsambaø²myycmnyngars½y etaelititamgrbs;vaenakñúg taragxyb. karbba b;edaymcçwmbt GYr k¾rtuv)anekerbipgedrsmrab;bgámúgaj:úgbitr)akdmyy Edl manfatuxuskñaducca bgáúm (OH H nig - ) niggiuy:ugsüanu (CN - ). duecñhsmasfatu LiO KCN KWRtUv)aneK[eQμaHfalIcUmGIuRduksIut nigb:utasüúmsüanu. smasfatutamgenh nigsmasfatu GIuy:ugdéTxøHeTotEdlRtUveK[eQμaHfasmasFatuRtIFatu. tarag3manrayeqμaheta tamgkçr Rkménkacug niggaj:úgmyycmnyn. elah³bitcabiesselah³qøg GacbegáIteLIgBIRbePTkacugeRcInCagmYy. ]TahrN duccaedk EdkGacbegáItkacug)anBIrKWkacug Fe nigkacug 2+ Fe. enakñúgkarehaeqμahtam 3+ RbB½næcas;Edl)ankMnt;eGayeyIgehAeQμaH énkacug EdlmanbnÞúkviC man ticcagbir rw bi fa GW - ous ehiy kacug man bnþúkvic man ercincag fa Gic - ic : Fe 2+ GIuy:ugEhVrW (ferrous ion) 3+ GIuy:ugEhVric Fe (ferric ion) eqμahénsmasfatu Edl GIuy:ugEdkenHbegáItCamYyGIuy:ugkørGacCa FeCl 2, FeCl 3. vifisarsþénkarehaeqμahgiuy:ug enhmankarkmnt; xus²kñamyycmnyn. CadMbUgmCÄimbT GW nig Gic min)anpþl;egaynuvbt manedlekarbetatambnþúkbitr)akdrbs;kacugenahet. duecñh GIuy:ug 1-24

EhVric (ferric ion) KW Fe elikelgetkacugtg;edg 3+ (Cu 2+ ) ehafa KURpric (Cupric). minet b:uenñahkarerciseriscamunénkarehamcäimbt GW nig Gic )anpþl;nuvkareqμahetcmebahfatu EdlmankacugxusKñaBIrb:ueNÑaH. FatuénelahHxøHGacsnμtfa manbnþúkvic manbi rw ercincag enhenakñúgsmasfatumyy. duecñhvakøaycamanpabgayrsyledim,ikmnt;birebob énkareha eqμahkacugxus²kñacamyynwgelx r:umuamg EdleKehAfa RbB½næ Stock. enakñúgrbb½næenh elx r:umuamg I esμinwgbnþúkvic mancmnynmyy ehay II esμinwgbnþúkvic mancmnynbir.l. xagerkamenh KWCaeQμaHrbs;smasFatuKWsmasFatum:g;kaENs II GuksIut MnO m:g;kaens III GuksIut nigm:g;kaens IVetRtaGuksIut. edayerbirbb½n Stock eyigkt; 2+ 3+ smkal;exijfa GIuy:ug Fe niggiuy:ug Fe. duecñhgiuy:ug Fe kalnamanrbtikmμcamyygiuy:ug 2+ Cl vakøaycaedk - II køry ehiygiuy:ug Fe kalnamanrbtikmμcamyygiuy:ug 3+ Cl vakøaycaedk - III køry. enakñúgkarrksakargnuvtþn¾tmenib eyignwgebjcitþkarehaeqμahsmasfatutamrbb½n Stock CageK. ]TahrN_xageRkamenHbgðajBIrebobehAeQμaHénsmasFatuGIuy:ug nigsresrrubmnþ m:uelkulénsmafatuguiy:ugedayep ketaelibt man Edlpþl;[enAkñúgrUb 11 nigenakñúgtarag 2 nig 3. tarag2 namvløigyréngaj:úgm:unagatumsmbaøxøh edayep ketaelititamgrbs;vaenakñúgtaragxyb Rkum 4A Rkum 5A Rkum 6A Rkum 7A C kabyr * (C 4- ) N NIRtY (N 3- ) O GuksIut (O 2- ) FPøúyGrY (F - ) Si siulisyr(si 4- ) P pusvüry (P 3- ) S s ulpit (S 2- ) Se esliny (Se 2- ) Te étlyry (Te 2- ) Cl køry (Cl - ) Br RbUmYr (Br - ) I GIuy:UDY (I - ) * Bakü kaby KW RtÚv)aneRbI cmebahgaj:úg C 2 2 pg. 1-25

tarag3 eqμah nigm:uelkulénkacug niggaj:úggsriragáénsmsfatusambaøxøh kacug Gaj:úg GaluymIj:Úm (Al 3+ ) + Gam:Uj:Úm (NH 4 ) )arüúm (Ba 2+ ) kat;mjú:m (Cd 2+ ) RbUm:Y (Br - ) kabunat(co kør:at (ClO ) 3 køry (Cl - ) kal;süúm (Ca 2+ 2 ) RkUm:at (CrO 4 ) essüúm (Cs + ) süany (CN - ) kum:at IIIb RkUmic (Cr 3+ 2 R ) DIRkUm:at (Cr 2 O ) 7 ku)al;ii (Co 2+ ) DIGIuRdUEsnpUsVat (H 2 PO 4 ) Tg;Edg I (Cu + ) PøúyGrY (F - ) Tg;Edg II (Cu 2+ ) GIuRdY (H - ) + GIuRdUEsn (H ) GIuRdUEsnkabUNatb b ÍkabUNat (HCO 3 2 Edk II (Fe GIuRdUEsnpUsVat 2+ ) (HPO 4 ) Edk III (Fe GuIRdUEsns ulpatb b Ís ulpat 3+ ) (HSO 4 ) smnr II (Pb GIuRduksIut 2+ ) (OH - ) - licum (Li ) GIuy:UdY + (I ) 2+ m:aej:süúm (Mg ) nirtat (NO 3 ) m:g;kaens II(Mn 2+ ) nirty (N 3- ) )art I (Hg nirtit 2 + 2 ) ( NO 2 ) 2- )art II (Hg GuksIut 2+ ) ( O ) b:utasüúm (K + ) EBrm:g;kaNat (Mn O 4 ) 2 R)ak; (Ag EBru:ksIut + ) (O 2 ) 3 sudüúm ( Na pusvat + ) (PO 4 ) Rság;cUm (Sr s ulpat 2+ ) (SO 2 4 ) smn):ahamg (Sn 2+ ) s ulpy (S 2- ) 2+ sgá½si (Zn ) s ulpit (SO 2 3 ) süúsüanat (SCN - ) 2 3 ) ) 1-26

] TahrN_ 1/4 cur[ eqμahsmasfatugiuy:ugducxagerkam³ k> Cu(NO 3 ) 2 x> KH 2 PO 4 nigk> NH 4 ClO 3. cmeliy k> edaysargiuy:ugnirtat (NO vic manmyy emiltaragti 2>3 ) manbnþúkg 3 ehiygiuy:ugtg;edgrtuv EtmanbnÞúkviC manbir duecñhsmasfatuvakwtg;edg II nirtat. x> kacugenahkw K ehiygaj:úgkw UE npusvat edaysaret + H 2 PO 4 DIGIuRd s b:utasüúmbegáitetgiuy:ugmyy RbePT (K + ) duecñhmincam)c;erbieqμahb:utasüúm (I) et. smasfatu enahkwek[eqμah fab:utasüúmdigiurduesnpusvat. + K> kacugenahkw NH 4 GIuy:ugGam:Uj:Úm niggaj:úg ClO 3 duecñhsmasfatu enahkwgam:uj:úmkør:at. lmhat;gnuvtþn_ cur[eqμahsmasfatuxagerkamenh³ k> PbO x> Li 2 SO 3 ]TahrN_ 1/5 sresrrubmnþm:uelkulsmrab;smasfatuducxagerkam³ k> )art I nirtit x> essüúms ulpy Cs 2 S K> kal;süúm pusvat. cmeliy k> GIuy:ug)art I KWGIuy:ugDIGatUm Hg 2 + 2 curemilt arag2>3 ehiygiuy:ugnirtit KW NO 2 duecñhrubmnþ rbs;vakw Hg 2 (NO 2 ) 2. x> GIuy:ugs ulpynimyy²manbnþúkgvic manbir ehiygiuy:ugessüúmnimyy² man bnþúkvic manmyy es süúmkwenakñúgrkum 1A ducsudüúmedr. duecñhrubmnþrbs;vakw Cs 2 S. K> GIuy:ugkal;süÚmnImYy²manbnÞúkviC manbir ehiygiuy:ugpusvatnimyy² (PO 3 4 )man bnþúkgvic mancmnynbi.edim,iefvi[plbukbnþúksrubesμisunüeyigrtuvettmruvcmnynkacug niggaj:úg 3(+2) + 2(-3) = 0 duecñh rubmnþrbs;va KW Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 lmhat;gnuvtþn_ ³ cursresrrubmnþm:uelkulsmrab;smasfatugiuy:ug k> ruyb Íj:Úms ulpat x> )ar:üúmgiurdy 7>2 smasfatum:uelkul minducsmasfatugiuy:uget smasfatum:uelkulmanxñatm:uelkuldac;²bikña EdlCanic kalrtuv)anekpsmeligbifatugelah³ emilrub 2> 8. smasfatum:uelkulmyycmnyn KWCasmasFatueTVFatu. karehaeqμahsmasfatuetvpak KWdUcKñaeTAnwgkarehAeQμaH smasfatugiuy:ug etvpakedr. eyigdak;eqμahsmasfatudmbug kñúgrubmnþenaxagedim ehiyfatutibirrtuv)anekdak;eqμahedaybenßm GYr etaepñkxagcug énfatutibirenah. 1-27

]TahrN_ HCl GIuRdUEsnkørY, HBr GIuRdUEsnRbUmY, SiC silisüúmkaby tarag4 bc wmbtrbs;rkicedlrtuv)anekerbikñúgkarehaeqμahsmasfatum:uelkul bc wmbt karehaeqμah 1 m:unu 2 DI 3 RTI 4 etrta 5 b:g;ta 6 Guicsa 7 Guibta 8 Gukta 9 NUNa 10 edka vakwcakarsambaøbmputsmrab;kurénfatumyy kñúgkarbegáitsmasfatuxus²kñamyycmnyn. kñúgkrnienhkarp½nþrclmkñúgkarehaeqμahsmasfatu KWRtUv)aneKeCosvagkareRbIR)as;bc wmbt rbs;rkic edim,ismkal;bicmnyngatuménfatunimyy² Edlmanvtþman curemiltarag2>4. BicarNaeTAelIrUbmnþdUcxageRkamenH³ CO CO 2 SO 2 SO 3 NO 2 N O 2 4 kabunm:unuguksiut kabundiguksiut s<an;f½rdiguksiut s<an;f½rrtiguksiut GasUtDIGuksIut DIGasUtetRtaGuksIut karennamxagerkamenh RtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,ICYykñugkarehAeQμaHsmasFatuCamYynwg bc wmbtrbs;va³ 1-28

- bc wmbt m:unu GacRtUv)aneKlubecalcMeBaHFatudMbUg. ]TahrN_ PCl 3 KWRtUv)an ekehaeqμahfapusvrrtwkøry minemnehapusvrm:unurtikøryet. duecñhkarkμanbc wmbtsmrab;fatu Edl enaxagmuxenhcatueta KWmann½yfa manetgatummyyetcmebahfatuxagmuxedlmanenakñúgm:uel KulenaH. - cmebahguksiut karbb a b;edaybc wmbt Ga eblxøhekrtuvlubecal. ]TahrN_ N 2 O 4 GacRtUv)aneKehAeQμaHfa DIGasUtetRtuksIut CaCagkarehAeQμaHfa DIGasUtetRtaGuksIut. karelikelgcmebahkarerbir)as;bc wmbtrkic KWsmasFatum:UelKulEdlmanGIuRdUEsn. BImun smasfatutamgenhmyycmnyn RtUv)aneKehAeQμaHy:agsamBaØbMput KWminehAeQμaHeTA tamk,ünb k¾ehaeqμahetatamcmnyngiurduesnedlmanvtþmanet. ]TahrN_ B 2 H 6 DIb r:an CH 4 emtan SiH 4 siulan NH 3 Gam:Uj:ak; PH 3 pusvin H 2 O Twk H 2 S GIuRdUEsns ulpyr curkt;smkal;falmdab;énkarsresrfatuenakñúgrubmnþm:uelkulsmrab;smasfatugiurduesn KWmineTotTat;eT. enakñúgsuluysüúggiurduesns ulpy nimitþsbaøa H RtUv)aneKsresrmun cmenké smas FatudéT²eTotKWRtUv)aneKsresrenAxageRkay. karsresrrubmnþcmebahsmasfatum:uelkulcanic Cakal KWeKsresrRtg;eTAmux. duecñh enakñúgsmasfatugaesnicrtipøúygry mann½yfa mangatumgaesnikmyy (As) nigmangatum F cmnynbienakñúgm:uelkulrbs;vanimyy² ehiym:uelkulrbs;vanimyy²kw AsF 3. curkt;smkal;fa lmdab;énfatuenakñúgrubmnþm:uelkulenahkwduckñaenakñúg eqμahrbs;va. ]TahrN_ 1/6 curehaeqμahsmasfatum:uelkulducxagerkam³ k> SiCl 4 x> P 4 O 10. cmeliy k> edaysarmangatumkørcmnyn 4dUecñHsmasFatuenaHKWsIlIkUnetRtakørY. 1-29

x> mangatumpusvrcmnyn 4 ehiymanvtþmangatumguksiuesncmnyn10 duecñhsmasfatu enahkwetrtapusvr edkuksiut. curcamfaeklub Ga ecjbieqμahedka. lmhat;gnuvtþn_ curehaeqμahsmasfatum:uelkulducxagerkam k> NF 3 nigx> Cl 2 O 7 ]TahrN_ 1/7 cursresrrubmnþm:uelkulcmebahsmasfatuducxagerkam k> kabundis ulpy x> DIsIulIkUnGiucsa RbUmY. cmeliy k> edaysarmanvtþmangatumkabunmyy niggatums<an;f½rbirduecñhrubmnþkw CS 2. x> mangatumsiulikunbir niggatumrbumycmnyn6 duecñhrubmnþm:uelkulrbs;vakw Si 2 Br 6. lmhat;gnuvtþn_ sresrrubmnþkimicmebahsmasfatum:uelkulducxagerkam³ k> s<an;f½retrtapøúygry x> DIGasUtb:g; tuksiut. 7>3 GasIut nig)as 7>3>1 karehaeqμahgasiut + GasIut RtUv)aneKcat;TukfaCasarFatumYy Edl[CaGIuy:ugGIuRdUEsn (H ) enaeblek rmlayvaetakñúgtwk. kñúgrubmnþrbs;gasiutmangatumgiurduesnmyyb ercinedledirtycarkumgaj:úg. Gaj:úg EdlmaneQμaHbBa b;edaygyr ehiy GIuk begáitgasiutedayerbibc wmbt GIuRdU ducedl)anbgðaj enakñúgtarag5.kñúgkrnixøhekgacehaeqμahsmasfatumyy)anbiry:agduckñúgkrnixagerkam HCl GIuRdUEsnkørY HCl GuIRdUkøricGasIut eqμahedlekkmnt;cmebahsmasfatumyykwgars½yetanwglkçn³rubrbs;va.kñúgpabca ]sμ½n b GgáFaturav sut HCl KWCasmasFatum:UelKulmYyEdleK[eQμaHfaGIuRdUEsnkørY. ena eblekrmlayvaetakñúgtwk m:uelkul enah)anbmebketacagiuy:ug H niggiuy:ug + Cl enakñúgpabenh - sarfatuenahrtuv)anekehaeqμahfagiurdukøricgasiut. GuksUGasIut KWCaGasIutTaMgLayNaEdlmanGIuRdUEsn nigguksiuesn nigfatudét² epsgetot FatukNþal. rubmnþénguksugasiutcanic CakalRtUv)aneKsresrCamYy H dmbug ehiyenaxagerkayvamanelah³knþal nigbnþab;mkkwelah³ O EdlRtUv)anbBa ak;eday ]TahrN_xageRkam 1-30

; H 2 CO 3 GasIutkabUnic HNO 3 GasIutnIRTic H 2 SO 4 GasIuts ulpuric HClO 3 GasIutkøric Cajwkjab;kalNaGuksUGasIutmancMnYnBIr b ercinetgetmangatumknþalduckña b:uenþ cmnyngatumguksiuesnxuskña. edaycab;epþimbiguksugasiutedleqμahvabba b;eday Giuc eyig erbik,ünvaducxagerkamedim,iehaeqμahsmasfatutamgenh. tarag5 GasIutsmBaØmYycMnYn Gaj:úg F PøúyGrY - GasIutEdlRtUvnwgva HF GasIutGIuRdUPøúyGric Cl køry - HCl GasIutGIuRdUkøric Br RbUmY - I GIuy:UdY - CN süanu - HBr GasIutGIuRdURbUmic HI GasIutGIuRdUGIuy:UDic HCN GasIutGIuRdUsüaNic S s ulpy 2- H 2 S GasIutGIuRdUs ulpuric rub 12 bgðajkarehaeqμah BBYk GuksUGasIut nig GuksU Gaj:úg GuksUGasIut d kgiuy:uggiurduesn (H )TMagGs + GuksU Gaj:úg GasuItEB//////////////Gic EB/////////////////Gat GasuIt GasuIt + [O] Gic - [O] GW ///////////////// Gat /////////////////GuIt - [O] GasuIt GuIbU: ////////////////GW GuIbU: ////////////////GuIt 1-31

-benßmgatumguksiuesnmyyetaeligasiutedlmanbc wmbt Giuc GasIutenaHRtUv)aneK ehaeqμahfagasiut Edlmanbc wmbt EBr>>>> Giuc. duecñhkarbenßmgatumguksiuesn myyeta[ G asiut HClO 3 RtUvbþÚreQμaHGasIutkøric etacagasiutebrkøric HClO 4. - kardkgatumguksiuesnmyyecjbigasiut Giuc GasIutenaHRtUv)aneKehAeQμaHfa G asiut Edlmanbc wmbt GW. duecñhgasiutnirtic (HNO3) køayetacagasiutnirtw (HNO 2 ). - kardkgatumguksiuesncmnynbirecjgasiut Edlmanbc wmbt Giuc GasIutenaHRtUv)aneK e haeqμahfa GasIutGIub:U>>>>>>>>>>>>>GW. duecñhenaebledlgasiut HBrO 3 RtUv) anbmelgetaca GasIut HBrO ehiygasiutenahrtuv )anek[eqμahfagasiutgiub:urbumw. c,ab;kñúgkarehaeqμahguksugaj:úg Gaj:úgGuksUGasuItKWmandUcxageRkam - enaebledlgiuy:ug H TaMgGs;RtUv)andkecjBIGasIutEdlmanbc wmbt Giuc eblenah eqμahrbs;gaj:úg enahbba b;eday Gat. ]TahrN_Gaj:úg CO 2 3 RtUv)aneKdkecjBIGasIut H 2 CO 3 KWRtUv)aneKehAeQμaHfa GIuy:ugkabUNat. - enaebledlgiuy:ug H TaMgGs;KWRtUv)aneKdkecjBIGasIutEdlmanbc wmbt GWu + eqμah rbs;gaj:úgenah RtUvehAvaedaybBa b;eday GIut enaxagcug. duecñhgaj:úg ClO 2 EdldkecjBI GasIut HClO 2 enahrtuv)anek[ eqμahfagiuy:ugkørit. - eqμahéngaj:úgedlmangiuy:uggiurduesnmyyb ercinb:uenþminemntamggs; tuv)anekdk ecjenah eyigrtuvetbba ak;bicmnyngatumgiurduesnedlmanvtþman. ]TahrN_ curbicarnaeta eligaj:úgedlrtuv)anekdkecjbiga siutpusvric. H 3 PO 4 GasIutpUsVric H 2 PO 4 DIGIuRdUEsnpUsVat HPO 2 4 GIuRdUEsnpUsVat PO 3 4 pusvat curkt;smkal;fa Canic CakaleyIglubecalbc wmbtm:unu enaebledlmanetgatum H myyenakñúggaj:úg enah. rub 12 segçbbinamvløismrab;guksugasiut nigguksugaj:úg ehiytarag 2>6 KWCatarag Edl[eQμaHBIGuksUGasIut nigguksugaj:úg EdlmanpÞúkFatukør. 1-32

tarag6 eqμahénguksugasiut nigguksugaj:úgedlmanpþúkfatukør GasIut Gaj:úg HClO 4 GasIutEBrkøric ClO 4 EBrkør:at HClO 3 GasIutkøric ClO 3 kør:at HClO2 GasIutkørW ClO 2 kørit HClO GasIutGIub:UkørW ClO GIub:UkørIt - ]Tahr N_xageRkamenHvaTak;TgeTAnwgnamvløIcMeBaH GuksUGasIut nigguksugaj:úg. - ]TahrN_ 1/8 curehaeqμah GuksUGasIut nigguksugaj:úg k> H 3 PO 3 x> IO 4 cmeliy k> eyigcab;epþimcamyygasiutedimrbs;eyigkwgasiutpusvric (H 3 PO 4 ). edaysar H 3 PO 3 man GatUmGuksIuEsnEtBIrbIb:ueNÑaH duecñhekehaeqμahgasiutenhfacagasiut pusvrw. x> GasIutparinKWmanrUbmnþ HIO 4. edaysargasiutenhmangatumguksiuesn ticcaggasiutedim KWGasIut (HIO 3 ) ticcagmyy duecñhgasiutenhek[eqμahfaebriy:udic. duecñh Gaj:úgEdldkecjBI HIO4 KWeK [eqμahfagiuy:ugebriy:udat. lmhat;gnuvtþn_³ curehaeqμahgasiutguksu niggaj:úgguksuducxagerkamenh k> HBrO x> HSO 7>3>2 karehaeqμah)as ekgaccat;tukfa)as KWCasarFatumYyEdl[GIuy:ug OH enaebledlekrmlayvaeta - kñúgtwk. xagerkam enhkwca]tahrn¾myycmnynrbs;)as NaOH sudüúmgiurduksiut KOH b:utasüúmgiurduksiut Ba(OH) 2 )ar:üúmgiurduksiut Gam:Uj:ak;EdlmanrUbmnþmU:elKul NH 3 KWCasmasFatum:UelKulmYyEdlsßitenAkñúg PaBCa]sμ½n b PaBCa GgÁFaturavsuT ehiyk¾rtuv)anekcat;tukfaca)assmbaømyy. ebiemil myyepøtetavahak;biduccakμanlkçn³smkal;ca)aset b:uenþebiemilva[kan;etyureta vaca sarfatumyyedlpþl;giuy:ug OH enaebledlvarlayetakñúgtwk edaymincm)ac;mangiuy:ug - GIuRduksIulenAkñúgTMrg;m:UelKulrb s;va edim,ismkal;ca)aseliy. b:uenþcakarbitenaebledl 4 1-33

_ m:uelkulgam:uj:ak;rlayculetakñúgtwkepñkxøhrbs; NH 3 vamanrbtikmμcamyytwkedim,ibegáitca GIuy:ug NH 4 nigoh ehtuduecñhehiy)ancaekcat;tukvaca)as. - 7>4 GIuRdat GIuRdat KWCasmasFatuTaMgLayNaEdlmancMnYnm:UelKulTwkCak;lak;mYy P ab;enanwgva. Ca]TahrN enapabsþg;daxñatnimyy²éntg;edgiis ulpatmanm:uelkul TwkcMnYn R)aM m:uelkulenap ab;nwgva. karehaeqμahtamrbb½n GnþrCati énsmasfatutg;edg s ulpatr)amgiurdaetedlrubmnþrbs;vartuv)aneksresrcacuso 4.5H 2 O. ekgacdkm:uelkul Twkecj)an edaykardutkmeda. enaebledleyigdutkmedaetasmasfatuedlenasl;kw CuSO 4 EdleBlxøHRtUv)aneKehAeQμaHfa Tg;Edgs ulpatganid Edlmann½yfa CasmasFatu EdlKμanTwkenACab;vateTAeTot. CuSO 4.5H 2 O manbn exov CuSO 4 manbn s. tarag7 xagerkamenhmaneqμahedlekehatamrbb½n smbaø énsmasfatuxøh rubmnþ namfmμta namehatamrbb½n GnþrCati CaSO 4.2H 2 O mñagsila kal;süúms ulpatdigiurdat H 2 O Twk DIGIuRdUEsnGuksIut NH3 Gam:Uj:ak; RTIGIuRdUEsnnIRtY CO 2 Twkkks Üt kabundiguksiutrwg NaCl GMbilsMl sudüúmkøry N 2 O ]sμ½nsmenic DIGasUtGuksIut GuksIutnIRtW CaCO 3 fμkme)ar dis kal;süúmkabunat CaO kme)ars kal;süúmguksiut Ca(OH) 2 TwkkMe)ar kal;süúmgiurduksiut NaHCO 3 emnm sudüúmgiurduesnkabunat Na 2 CO 3.10H 2 O sudasmrab;lag sudüúmkabunatedkagiurdat MgSO 4.7H 2 O GMbil Epsom m:aejsüúms ulpatgiubtagiurdat Mg(OH) 2 TwkedaHeKam;aej:süÚm m:aejsüúmgiurduksiut 1-34

smasfatugiurdatxøh epsgetotkw BaCl2.H 2 O )ar: üúmkørydigiurdat LiCl.H2O licumkørym:unugiurdat MgSO4.7H 2 O m:aej:süúms ulpatgiubtagiurdat Sr(NO 3 ) 2.4H 2 O Rság;cUmn IRtatetRtaGIuRdat 7>5 BBYksmasFatuGsrIragÁ smasfatuxøh KWRtUv)aneKdwgy:agc,as;edayeQμaHsmBaØrbs;va CaCagkarcaMeQμaH rbs;vatamkarehatamrbb½n GnþrCati. ]TahrN_smBaزmYycMnYn KWRtUv)aneKdak;enAkñúg tarag 7. karsegçbrbwtþikarn_ nigbbaøtiepsg² 1. KImIviTüaTMenIbKWcab;epþImB IRTwsþIGatUmrbs;elakdaltun (Dalton) Edl)anEføgfa RKb;rUb- FatuTaMgGs; KWpSMeLIgBIPaKl ittucbmputedlekmingacemilexijehafagatum ehiyrtwsþi enhefmtamgbba ak;fa GatUmTaMgGs;énFatumYyKWmanlkçN³dUcKñaebHbiT. RTwsþIrbs; elak)anbenßmfa smasfatuedlmangatuménfatuepsgkñaculpsmkñatamplefobcacmnynkt; nigbba ak;etotfa GatUmTaMgGs;minRtUv)aneKbegáIt b bmpøajva)anettamry³rbtikmμkimi c,ab;rksam:as. 2. GatUmTaMgLayénFatupSMenAkñúgsmasFatumYy Canic CakalRtÚv)anpSMeLIgtamsmamaRt Cam:asdUcKña c,ab;smartkmnt;. enaebledlfatubirgacpsmkñaedim,ibegáit)ancasmas FatueRcInCagmYyRbePTenaH m:asénfatumyyedlpsmcamyynwgm:askmnt;énfatumyyepsg etotenah vakwcaplefobcmnynkt;tucbmput c,ab;bhusmamart. 3. GatUmmYymanpÞúknUvduMéNVyU:mYyenAcMkNþal ehiyénvy:uenahmanpþúknuvrbutug nignwrtug EdlmaneGLicRtugvilCMuvijéNVy:UkñúgcMgayeFobmYyBIéNVy:UenaH. 4. RbUtugmanbnÞúkGKÁisnIviC man NWRtugKμanbnÞúkGKÁisnIeT cmenkéeglicrtugmanbnþúkgkáisni GviC man. RbUtug nignwrtugmanm:asrbhak;rbehlkña KWRbEhlCa 1840 dgf n;cagm:as rbs;eglicrtug. 1-35

5. elxlmdab;énfatumyy KWCacMnYnRbUtugenAkñúgéNVy:UénGatUmrbs;FatuenaH ehiyvakwcagñk kmnt;gtþsbaøanénfatuenahetotpg. cmnynm:as KWCaplbUksrubcMnYnRbUtugnigcMnYnNWRtug EdlsßitenAkñúgéNVy:U. 6. GIusUtUbKWCaGatUménFatudUcKñaEdlmancMnYnRbUtugdUcKña b:uenþmancmnynnwrtugxuskña. 7. rubmnþkimi KWpSMeLIgBInimitþsBaØaénFatuKImIEdlcUlrYmTaMgGs; rymcamyynwgcmnynkt;snþssn_ TaMgGs;rbs;FatuTaMgenaH edim,ibgðajegaydwgbirbeptgatum nigcmnyngatumedlmanenakñúg Éktad¾tUcbMputrbs;smasFatumYy. 8. rubmnþm:uelkul)anbgðaj[exijbicmnyngatum nigrbeptgatumcak;lak; EdlcUlpSMenAkñúg m:uelkulnimyy²rbs;smafatumyy. rubmnþgaybgðajnuvplefobgaybmputéngatum Edl culpsmenakñúgm:uelkulmyy. 9. smasfatukimigaccasmasfatum:uelkul EdlkñúgenaHmanÉktatUcbMput KWCam:UelKuldac; edayelk²bikña b CasmasFatuGIuy:Unic EdlGIuy:ugviC man niggvic mantp ab;kñaeday TMnajeTAvijeTAmk. smasfatugiuy:unic KWbgáeLIgBIkacug niggaj:uúgedlekitelig ena eblgatum)at; b cmenjeglicrtug. 10. eqμahrbs;smasfatugsriragácaercingacrtuv)anekkmnt;ehatamc,ab;sambaø²myycmnyn )an. rubmnþsmasfatusriragá ekgacsresr)anbieqμahrbs;smasfatutamgenah. KImIGnuvtþn¾ bmengeckfatuenaeliepndi nigenakñúgrbb½n rs;ena GgÁFatuPaKeRcInKWekIteLIgBIFmμCati etiggáfatutamgenhebgecky:agducemþcenaeli EpndI rs;ena? ehiyggáfatumyyna Edlmansar³sMxan;enAkñúgRbB½n smbkepndikwmankmras; 40KILÚEm:RtBIépÞEpndI edaysar EtmankarlM)akxagbec ketsefvi[gñkvitüasarsþ mingacsiksa )anbipabpsmxagkñúgénepndi)an RsYldUcsMbkEpndIeT. etahbica y:agnak¾eday k¾ekecofavamansñúlxagkñúgmyy rwgedr EdlPaK ercinpsmeligbiedkenacmbak;knþalénépþepndiehiyenacmviujsñúl 1-36

enahkw manrstab;myyedlek[eqμahfarstab;rkbdnþb; Mantle Edlman GgÁFatuekþA ehiyggáfaturavekþaenah manpþúkcatiedk kabun siulikun nigs<an;f½r. kñúgcmenamfatutamg83edlekrkexijenakñúgfmμcati manfatucmnyn 12 EdlbgáeLIgBI smbkepndi EdlKitCam:as;mancMnYn99, 7PaKry. FatuTaMgGs;enaHman O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Ti, H, P nigmn CaedIm. enakñúgkarbipaksakñabipabelislb;edlmankñúgfmμcatiénfatu TaMgGs;eyIg KYr camfa ³ 1> FatuTaMgGs;minEbgEcgesμI²KñaenAelIsMbkEpndIeT 2> FatuPaKeRcInKWekIteLIgkñúgTMrg;EdlpSMCasmasFatu. RBwtþikarN_TaMgenH )anpþl;[eyignuvlkçn³rkw³myycmebahvifid¾smbaøbmputkñúgkaryk FatusuT ecjbismasfaturbs;va. GñknwgeXIjviFIenHenACMBUkeRkay. rub14 PaKryCam:as; énfatucaedlmanvtþmanenakñúg 100RkaménPaKsMNak a PaKryCam:as;énGgÁFatuEdlmaneRcInelIslubenAkñúgFmμCati. ]TahrN_ PaK ercinelislubénguksiuesn KW 45,5 PaKry. enhmann½yfaenakñúg 100 RkaménPaKsMNak rbs;smbkepndicamfümmanfatuguksiuesncmnyn 45,5Rkam. b FatuelIslubenAkñúgxøÜnmnusSKitPaKryCam:as;. taragp ab;enhkw)anraymkcamyynuvfatusmxan;²myycmnyn EdlsßitenAkñúgxøÜnmnusSeyIg FatuEdlsMxan; TaMgGs;enaHKWdUcCa Fe, Cu, Zn, I, Co CaedIm EdlpSMKñaeTAbegáIt)anCam:as; 1PaKrykñúgcMeNamm:asrbs;xøÜneyIgTaMgmUl. FatuTaMgenHmansarsMxan;Nas;sMrab;muxgar CIv³dUcCakarlUtlas;kardwkCBa ÜnGuksIuEsnsMrab;eFVIemtabUlIsnigsMrab;karBarRbqMag nwg CMgW. enakñúgxøünmnusseyigbrimanfatutamggs;enhmanlmnwgminmammynet kalnafatutamggs; enhmanticrcul b ercinrculyur²etavanwggacnam[mancmgwf n;f r mancmgwviklcrik b GacbNþal [søab;etot pg. 1-37

tarag8 FatusMxan;²EdlmanenAkñúgxøÜnmnusS Fatu PaKryCam:as; Fatu PaKryCam:as; GuksIuEsn 65 sudüúm 0,1 kabun 18 m:aej:süúm 0,05 GIuRdUEsn 10 Edk 0,05 GasUt kal;süúm 3 1,5 ku)al; Tg;Edg <0,05 <0,05 pusvr 1,2 sgá½si <0,05 b:utasüúm 0,2 GIuy:Ut <0,05 s<an;f½r 0,2 eselj:úm <0,01 kør 0,2 PøúyGr <0,01 smnyr TMrg;énGatUm lmhat;rmlwk 1. cur[niymn½yénbaküxagerkamenh³ k> PaKl itα x> PaKl it β K>kaMrsμI γ X> kamrsμi X 2. cur[ eqμa HRbePT vitüúskmμedleksáal;fartuv)anbnsayedayfatuvitüúskmμ. 3. curerbobefoblkçn³ductetaenh ³ PaKl itα, kamrs μikatut, RbUtug/NWtRtug/eGLicRtug. 4. etipakl itcamuldæanéngatum (Fundamental atomi c particles)mann½yfay:agducemþc? 5. curbibn nabitssn³rbs;gñkvitüasarsþxagerkamenhcmebahcmenhdwgrbs;eyigsþigmbitmrg; GatUm³ elak J.J.Thomson, elak R.A.Millikan elak Ernest Rutherford, elak James Chadwick 6. curbibn nabimuldæanénkarbiesafcmebahkarecocak;faénvy:umanpþúknuvrbpaktucbmputmyy énmad rbs; GatUm. 1-38

lmhat; 7. Ggát;p iténgatumeglüúmnwtmyykwmanrbehl 1x10 pm. edaysnμt;faeyiggackus 2 bnþat;gatumeglüúm BIRCugmçageTARCugmçageTotedIm,ITak;TgeTAnwgGatUmmYyepSgeTot )an. etirbehlcamangatumcmnynb:unμan Edl ekrtuvkaredim,i[cmgaybicugmçagetacugmçag etotmanrbevg 1 cm? 8. niyay[bitetakamrbs;gatummyykwfmcagkamrbs;énvy:ucmnyn 10.000 dg. RbsinebI GatUmmYy RtUv)aneKBRgIk[FMenAeBlenaHkaMéNVyUrbs;vanwgmanRbEvg 2 cm KWesμInwgTMhM rbs;xøi etikamgatumenah manrbevgesμib:unμan miles?(1mi = 1609 m). elxlmdab; cmnynm:as niggiusutub smnyrrmlwkemeron 9. erbieglüúmedlmangiusutub4edim,ikmnt;elxlmdab; nigcmnynm:as;. ehtugvi)ancakardwg elxlmdab;gac R)ab;eyIgBIkarfycMnYneGLicRtugEdlman vtþmanenakñúggatummyy)an? 10. ehtugvi)ancagatum TaMgGs;énFatumYymanelx lmdab;duckña etahbicavamancmnynm:as xuskñak¾ eday? 11. etieyigehagatuménfatuduckñaehiymancmnynm:as;xuskñay:agducemþc? lmhat; A 12. curbnül;bigtßn½yénbakünimyy²enakñúgnimitþsbaøaénfatu Z X 13. eticmnynm:as;éngatumedkedlmancmnynnwrtug 28 manb:unμan? 14. KNnacMnYnNWRtugén Pu-239. 15. cmebahrbeptkiminimyy²xagerkamenh curkmnt; cmnynrbútugnig cmnynnwtrtug enakñúg énvy:u rbs;va³ 4 24 25 48 79 195 e, He, Mg, Mg, Ti, Br, Pt 3 2 H 2 12 12 22 35 78 16. curbba ak;bicmnynrbutug/ NWtRtug/ nigeglicrtugenakñúgrbeptkiminimyy²xagerkamenh³ 15 33 7 N, S, 63 16 29 84 130 186 202 Cu, 38 Sr, 56 Ba, 74 W, Hg 80 17. sresrnimitþsbaøaedlsmrsbcmebahgiusutubnimyy²ducxagerkam³ k> Z=11,A=23 x> Z= 28, A= 59 18. sresrnimitþsbaøaedlsmrsbcmebahgiusutubnimyy²ducxagerkam³ k> Z=74,A=186 x> Z= 80, A= 201 1-39

taragxyb smnyrrmlwk 19. etigvicataragxyb? ehiyetivamansar³rbeyacn_gvienakñúgkarsiksakimivitüa? 20. curr)ab;bilkçn³xuskñabiry:agrvagelah³ niggelah³? 21. sresreqμah nignimitþsbaøacmebahfatubynenakñúgcmenkfñak;nimyy²xagerkam³ k > Gelah³ x> elah³ K> GMpUETr 22. cur[niymn½yénbaküxagerkamedayp ab;mkcamyynuv]tahrn_bir²pg³ k> elah³gal;kalamg x> elah³gal;kalinuetruw K> GaLÚEsn X> ]sμ½nkmr: lmhat; 23. FatuEdleQμaHrbs;vabBa b;eday GUm Canic CakalvaCaelah³dUcCasUdüÚmCaedIm. currkbigelah³edleqμah rbs;vabba b;edaygumedr? 24. curbibn nabikarerbrbyllkçn³ BIel ah ³eTAGelah³b BIGelah³eTAelah³vij enaebl EdleyIgKitBIelImkeRkamtamRkum nigbisþammkeqvgtamxyb. 25. BiPakSaBIesovePAsresrTinñn½yrUbnigKImI syrrkuennamrbs;gñkemilfa etigñkgacsresr kñúgesovepa sresrenakenøgnaedim,irk[exijbi³ k> elah³biredlmandg;siuettuccag Twk x> elah³biredlmandg;siuetfmcag)art K> Rkas;CageKbg s;edleksáal;fafatuén elah³rwg X> dg;siuetfmcagekbg s;edlekehafafatu éngelah³rwg. 26. curdak;carkúmcmebahfatuxagerkamenh etakñúgkuedlgñkkitfa vaman lkçn³duckña ³ K, F, P, Na, Cl, nig N. m:uelkulniggiuy:ug smnyrrmlwk 27. etigatumnigm:uelkulmanlkçn³xuskñay:agducemþc? 28. ducemþcedlehafafatuedlmantmrg;vismrub allotrope? cur[]tahrn_. etifatuedlmankmerag ercintmrg;xuskñabigiusutuby:agducemþcedr? 29. tamfmμtacurbibn nabikarerbikmrum:uelkulbir? 30. cur[]tahrn_cmebahbakünimyy²ducxagerkamenh. k> kacugm:unugatum x> Gaj:úgm:UNUGatUm K> kacugb:uligatum X> Gaj:úgb:UlIGatUm 1-40

lmhat; 31. curbba ak;nuvrubmnþxagerkamenhfavacafatub CasmasFatu? NH 3, N 2, S 8, NO, CO, CO 2, H 2, SO 2. 32. cur[ ]TahrN_BIrcMeBaHXøanImYy²xageRkame nh k> m:uelkuldigatumedlmangatuménfatuduckña x> m:uelkuldigatumedlmangatuménfatxuskña K> m:uelkulb:uligatumedlmangatuménfatuduckña X> m:uelkulb:uligatumedlmangatuménfatuxuskña 33. curr)ab;bicmnynrbutug nigeglicrtugenakñúggiuy:ugsmbaønimyy²xagerkam Na N. + Ca 2+ Al 3+ Fe 2+ I - F - S 2- O nig 2-3- 34. curr)ab;bicmnynrbutug nigeglicrtugenakñúggiuy:ugnimyy² ducxagerkam K +, Mg 2+, Fe 3+, Br -, Mn 2+, C 4-, Cu. 2+ rubmnþkimi smnyrrmlwkemeron 35. etirubmnþkimitmnag[gvi? etiplefobéngatumenakñúgrubmnþm:uelkulxagerkamenhducemþc? k> NO x> NCl 3 K> N 2 O 4 X> P 4 O 6 36. cur[niymn½yénrubmnþm:uelkul nigrubmnþgay. etimangviduckña nigxuskñarvagrubmnþ m:uelkul nigrubmnþgayrbs;smasfatumyy. 37. cur[]tahrn_myykñúgkrnimyyedlm:uelkulbiredlmanrubmnþ m:uelkulxuskña b:uenþman rubmnþgay duckña. 38. eti P 4 mann½yfay:agducemþc? etivaxuskñanwg 4P y:agducemþc? 39. etigvicasmasfatugiuy:ug? etipabnwtgkáisniedlrksaenakñúgsmasfatugiuy:ugducemþceta? 40. curbnül;ehtugvi)ancarubmnþkimiénsmasfatugiuy:ugetgetduckñaetanwgrubmnþgayrbs;va? lmhat; 41. etirubmnþgayénsmasfatuxagerkamenhy:agducemþc? k> C 2 N 2 x> C 6 H 6 K> C 9 H 20 X> P 4 O 10 g> B 2 H 6 42. etirubmnþgayénsmasfatuxagerkamenhy:agducemþc? 1-41

k> Al 2 Br 6 x> Na 2 S 2 O 4 K> N 2 O 5 X> K2Cr 2 O7 43. cursresrrubmnþm:uelkulénkøisiun/cagasiutgaminuedlmanvtþmanenakñúgrb:uetgiun. BN RbepHKW kabun BN exovkwgasut BN RkhmKWGuksIuEsn nigbn elogkwgiurduesn. BN exov BN elog 44. sresrrubmnþm:uelkulénegtanul. BN RbepHKW kabun BN RkhmKWGuksIuEsn nigbn elogkwgiurduesn. BN elog BN RbepH BN Rkhm BN Rkhm 45. smasfatuxagerkamenhetismasfatumyyna EdlmanTMenaredIm,IkøayeTACa smasfatugiuy:ug? ehiysmasfatumyyna EdlmanTMenaredIm,IkøayeTACa smasfatu m:uelkul? SiCl 4, LiF, BaCl 2, B 2 H 6, KCl, C 2 H 4 46. etismasfatuxagerkamenhsmasfatumyynaedlmantmenaretarksmasfatugiuy:ug? ehiysmasfatu myynaedlmantmenaretarksmasfatum:uelkul? CH 4, NaBr, BaF 2, CCl 4, ICl, CsCl, NF 3. BN RbepH karehaeqμahsmasfatugsriragá smnyrrmlwkemeron 47. etimangvixuskñarvagsmasfatusriragá nigsmasfatugsriragá? 48. etiepñksmxan;byynrbs;smasfatugsriragámangvixøh? 49. cur[]tahrn_myycmebahsmasfatuetvrfatu nigsmasfaturtifatu? 50. etirbb½n Stock CaGVI?etIvamansarRbeyaCn_GVI CagRbB½n cas;kñúgkarehaeqμahkacug? 51. curbnül;faehtugvi)ancarubmnþ HCl GactagedayRbB½n KImIBIrxusKñadUecñH? 52. cur[niymn½ygasiut )as GuksUGasIut GuksUGaj:úg niggiurdat. lmhat; 53. curehaeqμahsmasfatuxagerkamenh 1-42