Alternating Permutations

Átírás

1 Alternating Permutations Richard P. Stanley M.I.T.

2 Definitions A sequence a 1, a 2,..., a k of distinct integers is alternating if a 1 > a 2 < a 3 > a 4 <, and reverse alternating if a 1 < a 2 > a 3 < a 4 >.

3 Definitions A sequence a 1, a 2,..., a k of distinct integers is alternating if a 1 > a 2 < a 3 > a 4 <, and reverse alternating if a 1 < a 2 > a 3 < a 4 >. S n : symmetric group of all permutations of 1, 2,..., n

4 E n E n = #{w S n : w is alternating} = #{w S n : w is reverse alternating} via a 1 a 2 a n n + 1 a 1, n + 1 a 2,..., n + 1 a n

5 E n E n = #{w S n : w is alternating} = #{w S n : w is reverse alternating} via a 1 a 2 a n n + 1 a 1, n + 1 a 2,..., n + 1 a n E.g., E 4 = 5: 2143, 3142, 3241, 4132, 4231

6 André s theorem Theorem (Désiré André, 1879) y := n 0 E n x n n! = sec x + tan x

7 André s theorem Theorem (Désiré André, 1879) y := n 0 E n x n n! = sec x + tan x E n is an Euler number, E 2n a secant number, E 2n 1 a tangent number.

8 Naive proof }{{} alternating 1826 }{{} alternating

9 Naive proof }{{} alternating 1826 }{{} alternating Obtain w that is either alternating or reverse alternating.

10 Naive proof }{{} alternating 1826 }{{} alternating Obtain w that is either alternating or reverse alternating. 2E n+1 = n k=0 ( ) n E k E n k, n 1 k

11 Completion of proof 2E n+1 = n k=0 ( ) n E k E n k, n 1 k

12 Completion of proof 2E n+1 = n k=0 ( ) n E k E n k, n 1 k 2 n 0 E n+1 x n n! = 2y n 0 ( n k=0 ( ) n x )E n k E n k k n! = 1 + y 2

13 Completion of proof 2E n+1 = n k=0 ( ) n E k E n k, n 1 k 2 n 0 E n+1 x n n! = 2y n 0 ( n k=0 ( ) n x )E n k E n k k n! = 1 + y 2 2y = 1 + y 2, etc.

14 A generalization more sophisticated approaches. E.g., let f k (n) = #{w S n : w(r) < w(r + 1) k r} f 2 (n) = E n

15 A generalization more sophisticated approaches. E.g., let f k (n) = #{w S n : w(r) < w(r + 1) k r} f 2 (n) = E n Theorem. k 0 f k (kn) xkn (kn)! = ( n 0 ) 1 ( 1) n xkn. (kn)!

16 Combinatorial trigonometry Define sec x and tan x by sec x + tan x = n 0 E n x n n!.

17 Combinatorial trigonometry Define sec x and tan x by sec x + tan x = n 0 E n x n n!. Exercise. sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x

18 Combinatorial trigonometry Define sec x and tan x by sec x + tan x = n 0 E n x n n!. Exercise. sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x Exercise. tan(x + y) = tan x + tan y 1 (tan x)(tan y)

19 Some occurences of Euler numbers (1) E 2n 1 is the number of complete increasing binary trees on the vertex set [2n + 1] = {1, 2,..., 2n + 1}.

20 Five vertices

21 Five vertices Slightly more complicated for E 2n

22 Simsun permutations Definition. A permutation w = a 1 a n S n is simsun if for all 1 k n, the restriction b 1 b k of w to 1, 2,..., k has no double descents b i 1 > b i > b i+1.

23 Simsun permutations Definition. A permutation w = a 1 a n S n is simsun if for all 1 k n, the restriction b 1 b k of w to 1, 2,..., k has no double descents b i 1 > b i > b i+1. Example is not simsun: restriction to 1, 2, 3, 4 is 3421.

24 Simsun permutations Definition. A permutation w = a 1 a n S n is simsun if for all 1 k n, the restriction b 1 b k of w to 1, 2,..., k has no double descents b i 1 > b i > b i+1. Example is not simsun: restriction to 1, 2, 3, 4 is Theorem (R. Simion and S. Sundaram) The number of simsun permutations w S n is E n.

25 Chains of partitions (2) Start with n one-element sets {1},..., {n}.

26 Chains of partitions (2) Start with n one-element sets {1},..., {n}. Merge together two at a time until reaching {1, 2,..., n}.

27 Chains of partitions (2) Start with n one-element sets {1},..., {n}. Merge together two at a time until reaching {1, 2,..., n} , , , ,

28 Chains of partitions (2) Start with n one-element sets {1},..., {n}. Merge together two at a time until reaching {1, 2,..., n} , , , , S n acts on these chains.

29 Chains of partitions (2) Start with n one-element sets {1},..., {n}. Merge together two at a time until reaching {1, 2,..., n} , , , , S n acts on these chains. Theorem. The number of S n -orbits is E n 1.

30 Orbit representatives for n =

31 A polytope volume Let P n be the convex polytope in R n with equations x i 0, 1 i n x i + x i+1 1, 1 i n 1.

32 A polytope volume Let P n be the convex polytope in R n with equations x i 0, 1 i n x i + x i+1 1, 1 i n 1. Theorem. vol(p n ) = 1 n! E n

33 Ulam s problem Let E(n) be the expected length is(w) of the longest increasing subsequence of w.

34 Ulam s problem Let E(n) be the expected length is(w) of the longest increasing subsequence of w. w = is(w) = 3

35 Two highlights Long story...

36 Two highlights Long story... Logan-Shepp, Vershik-Kerov: E(n) 2 n

37 Two highlights Long story... Logan-Shepp, Vershik-Kerov: E(n) 2 n Write is n (w) for is(w) when w S n. Baik-Deift-Johansson: ( lim Prob isn (w) 2 n n n 1/6 the Tracy-Widom distribution. ) t = F (t),

38 Alternating subsequences? as(w) = length of longest alternating subseq. of w w = as(w) = 5

39 The main lemma MAIN LEMMA. w S n alternating subsequence of maximal length that contains n.

40 The main lemma MAIN LEMMA. w S n alternating subsequence of maximal length that contains n. a k (n) = #{w S n : as(w) = k} b k (n) = a 1 (n) + a 2 (n) + + a k (n) = #{w S n : as(w) k}.

41 Recurrence for a k (n) 2r+s=k 1 a k (n) = n j=1 ( ) n 1 j 1 (a 2r (j 1) + a 2r+1 (j 1)) a s (n j)

42 The main generating function Theorem. Define B(x, t) = B(x, t) = where ρ= 1 t 2. k,n 0 b k (n)t k xn n! 2/ρ 1 1 ρ t e ρx 1 ρ,

43 Formulas for b k (n) Corollary. b 1 (n) = 1 b 2 (n) = n b 3 (n) = 1 4 (3n 2n + 3) b 4 (n) = 1 8 (4n (2n 4)2 n ).

44 Formulas for b k (n) Corollary. b 1 (n) = 1 b 2 (n) = n b 3 (n) = 1 4 (3n 2n + 3) b 4 (n) = 1 8 (4n (2n 4)2 n ) no such formulas for longest increasing subsequences.

45 Mean (expectation) of as(w) D(n) = 1 n! w S n as(w), the expectation of as(n) for w S n

46 Mean (expectation) of as(w) D(n) = 1 n! w S n as(w), the expectation of as(n) for w S n Let A(x, t) = a k (n)t k xn = (1 t)b(x, t) n! k,n 0 ( ) 2/ρ = (1 t) 1 1 ρ t e 1. ρx ρ

47 Formula for D(n) n 0 D(n)x n = A(x, 1) t = 6x 3x2 + x 3 6(1 x) 2 = x + n 2 4n x n.

48 Formula for D(n) n 0 D(n)x n = A(x, 1) t = 6x 3x2 + x 3 6(1 x) 2 = x + n 2 4n x n. A(n) = 4n + 1 6, n 2

49 Formula for D(n) n 0 D(n)x n = A(x, 1) t = 6x 3x2 + x 3 6(1 x) 2 = x + n 2 4n x n. A(n) = 4n + 1, n 2 6 Recall E(n) 2 n.

50 Variance of as(w) V (n) = 1 n! w S n ( as(w) 4n + 1 ) 2, n 2 6 the variance of as(n) for w S n

51 Variance of as(w) V (n) = 1 n! w S n ( as(w) 4n + 1 ) 2, n 2 6 the variance of as(n) for w S n Corollary. V (n) = 8 45 n , n 4

52 Variance of as(w) V (n) = 1 n! w S n ( as(w) 4n + 1 ) 2, n 2 6 the variance of as(n) for w S n Corollary. V (n) = 8 45 n , n 4 similar results for higher moments

53 A new distribution? P (t) = lim n Prob w Sn ( as(w) 2n/3 n ) t

54 A new distribution? P (t) = lim n Prob w Sn Stanley distribution? ( as(w) 2n/3 n ) t

55 Limiting distribution Theorem (Pemantle, Widom, (Wilf)). ( as(w) 2n/3 lim Prob w S n n n ) t (Gaussian distribution) = 1 t 45/4 π e s2 ds

56 Limiting distribution Theorem (Pemantle, Widom, (Wilf)). ( as(w) 2n/3 lim Prob w S n n n ) t (Gaussian distribution) = 1 t 45/4 π e s2 ds

57 Umbral enumeration Umbral formula: involves E k, where E is an indeterminate (the umbra). Replace E k with the Euler number E k. (Technique from 19th century, modernized by Rota et al.)

58 Umbral enumeration Umbral formula: involves E k, where E is an indeterminate (the umbra). Replace E k with the Euler number E k. (Technique from 19th century, modernized by Rota et al.) Example. (1 + E 2 ) 3 = 1 + 3E 2 + 3E 4 + E 6 = 1 + 3E 2 + 3E 4 + E 6 = = 80

59 Another example (1 + t) E = 1 + Et + ( ) E t ( ) E t = 1 + Et E(E 1)t2 + = 1 + E 1 t (E 2 E 1 ))t 2 + = 1 + t (1 1)t2 + = 1 + t + O(t 3 ).

60 Alt. fixed-point free involutions fixed point free involution w S 2n : all cycles of length two

61 Alt. fixed-point free involutions fixed point free involution w S 2n : all cycles of length two Let f(n) be the number of alternating fixed-point free involutions in S 2n.

62 Alt. fixed-point free involutions fixed point free involution w S 2n : all cycles of length two Let f(n) be the number of alternating fixed-point free involutions in S 2n. n = 3 : = (1, 2)(3, 4)(5, 6) = (1, 6)(2, 4)(3, 5) f(3) = 2

63 An umbral theorem Theorem. F (x) = n 0 f(n)x n

64 An umbral theorem Theorem. F (x) = n 0 f(n)x n = ( ) (E 1 + x 2 +1)/4 1 x

65 An umbral theorem Theorem. F (x) = n 0 f(n)x n = ( ) (E 1 + x 2 +1)/4 1 x Proof. Uses representation theory of the symmetric group S n. In particular, there is a nice representation of dimension E n.

66 Ramanujan s Lost Notebook Theorem (Ramanujan, Berndt, implicitly) As x 0+, 2 n 0 ( ) n(n+1) 1 x 1 + x k 0 f(k)x k = F (x), an analytic (non-formal) identity.

67 A formal identity Corollary (via Ramanujan, Andrews). F (x) = 2 n 0 n q n j=1 (1 q2j 1 ) 2n+1 j=1 (1 + qj ), where q = ( 1 x 1+x) 2/3, a formal identity.

68 Simple result, hard proof Recall: number of n-cycles in S n is (n 1)!.

69 Simple result, hard proof Recall: number of n-cycles in S n is (n 1)!. Theorem. Let b(n) be the number of alternating n-cycles in S n. Then if n is odd, b(n) = 1 n µ(d)( 1) (d 1)/2 E n/d. d n

70 Special case Corollary. Let p be an odd prime. Then b(p) = 1 ) (E p ( 1) (p 1)/2. p

71 Special case Corollary. Let p be an odd prime. Then b(p) = 1 ) (E p ( 1) (p 1)/2. p Combinatorial proof?

72 Another such result Recall: the expected number of fixed points of w S n is 1.

73 Another such result Recall: the expected number of fixed points of w S n is 1. J(n) = expected number of fixed points of reverse alternating w S n Theorem. J(2n) = 1 E 2n (E 2n ( 1) n ). Similar (but more complicated) for n odd or for alternating permutations.

74 Another such result Recall: the expected number of fixed points of w S n is 1. J(n) = expected number of fixed points of reverse alternating w S n Theorem. J(2n) = 1 E 2n (E 2n ( 1) n ). Similar (but more complicated) for n odd or for alternating permutations. Combinatorial proof?

75 Descent sets Let w = a 1 a 2 a n S n. Descent set of w: D(w) = {i : a i > a i+1 } {1,..., n 1}

76 Descent sets Let w = a 1 a 2 a n S n. Descent set of w: D(w) = {i : a i > a i+1 } {1,..., n 1} D( ) = {1, 4, 5} D( ) = {1, 3, 5} (alternating) D( ) = {2, 4, 6} (reverse alternating)

77 β n (S) β n (S) = #{w S n : D(w) = S}

78 β n (S) β n (S) = #{w S n : D(w) = S} w D(w) {1} 312 {1} 132 {2} 231 {2} 321 {1, 2} β 3 ( ) = 1, β 3 (1) = 2 β 3 (2) = 2, β 3 (1, 2) = 1

79 u S Fix n. Let S {1,, n 1}. Let u S = t 1 t n 1, where { a, i S t i = b, i S.

80 u S Fix n. Let S {1,, n 1}. Let u S = t 1 t n 1, where { a, i S t i = b, i S. Example. n = 8, S = {2, 5, 6} {1,..., 7} u S = abaabba

81 A noncommutative gen. function Ψ n (a, b) = S {1,...,n 1} β n (S)u S.

82 A noncommutative gen. function Ψ n (a, b) = Example. Recall S {1,...,n 1} β n (S)u S. β 3 ( ) = 1, β 3 (1) = 2, β 3 (2) = 2, β 3 (1, 2) = 1 Thus Ψ 3 (a, b) = aa + 2ab + 2ba + bb

83 A noncommutative gen. function Ψ n (a, b) = Example. Recall S {1,...,n 1} β n (S)u S. β 3 ( ) = 1, β 3 (1) = 2, β 3 (2) = 2, β 3 (1, 2) = 1 Thus Ψ 3 (a, b) = aa + 2ab + 2ba + bb = (a + b) 2 + (ab + ba)

84 The cd-index Theorem. There exists a noncommutative polynomial Φ n (c, d), called the cd-index of S n, with nonnegative integer coefficients, such that Ψ n (a, b) = Φ n (a + b, ab + ba).

85 The cd-index Theorem. There exists a noncommutative polynomial Φ n (c, d), called the cd-index of S n, with nonnegative integer coefficients, such that Example. Recall Ψ n (a, b) = Φ n (a + b, ab + ba). Ψ 3 (a, b) = aa + 2ab + 2ba + b 2 = (a + b) 2 + (ab + ba). Therefore Φ 3 (c, d) = c 2 + d.

86 Small values of Φ n (c, d) Φ 1 = 1 Φ 2 = c Φ 3 = c 2 + d Φ 4 = c 3 + 2cd + 2dc Φ 5 = c 4 + 3c 2 d + 5cdc + 3dc 2 + 4d 2 Φ 6 = c 5 + 4c 3 d + 9c 2 dc + 9cdc 2 + 4dc 3 +12cd dcd + 12d 2 c.

87 The set S µ Recall: w = a 1 a n S n is simsun if for all 1 k n, the restriction b 1 b k of w to 1, 2,..., k has no double descents b i 1 > b i > b i+1.

88 The set S µ Recall: w = a 1 a n S n is simsun if for all 1 k n, the restriction b 1 b k of w to 1, 2,..., k has no double descents b i 1 > b i > b i+1. Given a cd-monomial µ, let c 0, d 10, and remove final 0. Example. µ = cd 2 c 2 d , the characteristic vector of S µ = {2, 4, 8}.

89 The coefficients of Φ n (c, d) Theorem (Simion-Sundaram) Let µ be a cd-monomial of degree n 1. The coefficient of µ in Φ n (c, d) is the number of simsun permutations w S n 1 with descent set S µ.

90 The case n = 4 w D(w) µ 123 c dc dc cd cd 01 Φ 4 (c, d) = c 3 + 2dc + 2cd

91 Expansion of cd-monomials Let m = m(c, d) be a cd-monomial, e.g., c 2 d 2 cd. Expand m(a + b, ab + ba): (a + b) 2 (ab + ba) 2 (a + b)(ab + ba) = a 9 + ba 8 +.

92 Expansion of cd-monomials Let m = m(c, d) be a cd-monomial, e.g., c 2 d 2 cd. Expand m(a + b, ab + ba): (a + b) 2 (ab + ba) 2 (a + b)(ab + ba) = a 9 + ba 8 +. Key observation: m(a + b, ab + ba) is a sum of distinct monomials, always including ababab and bababa.

93 Alternating permutations The coefficient of ababab and of bababa in Ψ n (a, b) is β n (2, 4, 6,... ) = β n (1, 3, 5,... ) = E n.

94 Alternating permutations The coefficient of ababab and of bababa in Ψ n (a, b) is Hence: β n (2, 4, 6,... ) = β n (1, 3, 5,... ) = E n. Theorem. (a) Φ n (1, 1) = E n (can interpret coefficients combinatorially). (b) For all S {1,..., n 1}, β n (S) β n (1, 3, 5,... ) = E n.

95 An example Φ 5 = 1c 4 + 3c 2 d + 5cdc + 3dc 2 + 4d = 16 = E 5

96 Comments NOTE. (b) is due originally to Niven and later de Bruijn (different proofs).

97 Comments NOTE. (b) is due originally to Niven and later de Bruijn (different proofs). NOTE. Not hard to show that β n (S) < E n unless S = {1, 3, 5,... } or S = {2, 4, 6,... }.

98