BULLETIN. of the Szent István University SPECIAL ISSUE PART I.

BULLETIN of the Szent István University SPECIAL ISSUE PART I. Gödöllı 2008

Editorial Board Prof. György Füleki CSc. Chairman of the Editorial Board Prof. Miklós Mézes DSc. editor Prof. Béla M. Csizmadia CSc. Prof. Tamás T. Kiss CSc. Prof. Gyula Huszenicza DSc. Prof. Gábor Reischl DLA Prof. István Szőcs DSc. Edited by the Guest Editorial Board Katalin Takács-György CSc, Chairman of the Guest Editorial Board József Lehota DSc István Takács PhD László Villányi CSc With the support of Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences, Szent István University Management and Business Administration PhD School of Szent István University Szerkesztıség Szent István Egyetem 2103 Gödöllı, Páter Károly u. 1. Kiadja a Szent István Egyetem Felelıs kiadó Dr. Solti László egyetemi tanár, rektor Technikai szerkesztı Szalay Zsigmond Gábor Felelıs szerkesztı Dr. Mézes Miklós egyetemi tanár ISSN 1586-4502 Megjelent 380 példányban

Contents / Tartalomjegyzék Part I. / I. kötet Agricultural and rural development and international view Agrár- és vidékfejlesztés, nemzetközi kitekintés ÁCS, SZ. DALLIMER, M. HANLEY, N. ARMSWORTH, P.: Impacts of policy reform on hill farm incomes in UK...11 BIELIK, P. RAJČÁNIOVÁ, M.: Some problems of social and economic development of agriculture...25 BORZÁN A. SZIGETI C.: A Duna-Körös-Maros-Tisza Eurorégió gazdasági fejlettségének elemzése a régiók Európájában...37 CSEH PAPP, I. Regionális különbségek a magyar munkaerıpiacon...45 NAGY, H. KÁPOSZTA, J.: Convergence criteria and their fulfilment by the countries outside the Euro-zone...53 OSZTROGONÁCZ, I. SING, M. K.: The development of the agricultural sector in the rural areas of the Visegrad countries...65 PRZYGODZKA, R.: Tradition or innovation which approach is better in rural development? The case of Podlasie Region...75 TAKÁCS E. HUZDIK K.: A magyarországi immigráció trendjei az elmúlt két évtizedben...87 TÓTHNÉ LİKÖS K. BEDÉNÉ SZİKE É. GÁBRIELNÉ TİZSÉR GY.: országok összehasonlítása néhány makroökonómiai mutató alapján...101 VINCZE M. MADARAS SZ. Analysis of the Romanian agriculture in the period of transition, based on the national accounts...111 Agricultural trade and marketing Agrárkereskedelem, marketing ADAMOWICZ, M.: Consumer behavior in innovation adaptation process on fruit market 125 FÉNYES, T. I. MEYER, N. G. BREITENBACH, M. C.: Agricultural export and import assessment and the trade, development and co-operation agreement between South Africa and the European Union...137 KEMÉNYNÉ HORVÁTH ZS.: The transformation of market players on the demand-side of the grain market...151 LEHOTA J. KOMÁROMI N.: A feldolgozott funkcionális élelmiszerek fogyasztói szegmentálása és magatartási jellemzıi...159 LEHOTA J. KOMÁROMI N.: Szarvasgomba fogyasztói és beszerzési magatartásának szegmentálása és jellemzıi...169 NYÁRS, L. VIZVÁRI, B.: On the supply function of the Hungarian pork market...177 SZAKÁLY Z. SZIGETI O. SZENTE V.: Fogyasztói attitődök táplálkozási elınyökkel kapcsolatban...187 SZIGETI O. SZENTE V. MÁTHÉ A. SZAKÁLY Z.: Marketing lehetıségek az állati eredető hungarikumok termékpályáján...199 VÁRADI K.: Társadalmi változások és a marketing kapcsolatának modellezési lehetıségei...211

Sustainability and competitivness Fenntarthatóság, versenyképesség BARANYAI ZS. TAKÁCS I.: A hatékonyság és versenyképesség fıbb kérdései a délalföldi térség gazdaságaiban...225 BARKASZI L.: A kukoricatermesztés hatékonyságának és eredményességének vizsgálata 2003-2006 évi tesztüzemi adatok alapján...237 JÁMBOR A.: A versenyképesség elmélete és gyakorlata...249 LENCSÉS E.: A precíziós gazdálkodás ökonómiai értékelése...261 MAGÓ, L.: Low cost mechanisation of small and medium size plant production farms...273 SINGH, M. K. KAPUSZTA, Á. FEKETE-FARKAS, M.: Analyzing agriculture productivity indicators and impact of climate change on CEECs agriculture...287 STRELECEK, F. ZDENĚK, R. LOSOSOVÁ, J.: Influence of farm milk prices on profitability and long-term assets efficiency...297 SZÉLES I.: Vidéki versenyképesség-versenyképes vidékfejlesztés: AVOP intézkedések és azok kommunikációjának vizsgálata...303 SZİLLİSI L. NÁBRÁDI A.: A magyar baromfi ágazat aktuális problémái...315 TAKÁCS I. BARANYAI ZS. TAKÁCS E. TAKÁCSNÉ GYÖRGY K.: A versenyképes virtuális (nagy)üzem...327 TAKÁCSNÉ GYÖRGY K. TAKÁCS E. TAKÁCS I.: Az agrárgazdaság fenntarthatóságának mikro- és makrogazdasági dilemmái...341 Authors index / Névjegyzék...355

Part II. / II. kötet Economic methods and models Közgazdasági módszerek, modellek BARANYI A. SZÉLES ZS.: A hazai lakosság megtakarítási hajlandóságának vizsgálata367 BHARTI, N.: Offshore outsourcing (OO) in India s ites: how effective it is in data protection?...379 BORSZÉKI É.: A jövedelmezıség és a tıkeszerkezet összefüggései a vállalkozásoknál...391 FERTİ, I.: Comparative advantage and trade competitiveness in Hungarian agriculture...403 JÁRÁSI É. ZS.: Az ökológiai módon mővelt termıterületek nagyságát befolyásoló tényezık és az árutermelı növények piaci pozíciói Magyarországon...413 KODENKO J. BARANYAI ZS. TAKÁCS I.: Magyarország és Oroszország agrárstruktúrájának változása az 1990-es évektıl napjainkig...421 OROVA, I. KOMÁROMI, N.: Model applications for the spread of new products in Hungarian market circumstances...433 REKE B.: A vállalkozások egyensúlyi helyzetének változáskövetı vizsgálata...445 ŠINDELÁŘ, J.: Forecasting models in management...453 SIPOS N.: A környezetvédelmi jellegő adók vizsgálata a fenntartható gazdálkodás vonatkozásában...463 VARGA T.: Kényszerő hagyomány : értékvesztés a mezıgazdasági termékek piacán...475 ZÉMAN Z. TÓTH M. BÁRCZI J.: Az ellenırzési tevékenység kialakítási folyamatának modellezése különös tekintettel a gazdálkodási tevékenységeket érintı K+F és innovációk elszámolására...485 Land utilization and farm structure Földhasználat, gazdaságstruktúra FEHÉR, I. MADARÁSZ I.: Hungarian land ownership patterns and possible future solutions according to the stakeholders' view...495 FEKETE-FARKAS, M. SINGH, M. K. ROUNSEVELL, M. AUDSLEY, E.: Dynamics of changes in agricultural land use arising from climate, policy and socio-economic pressures in Europe...505 LAZÍKOVÁ, J. BANDLEROVA, A. SCHWARCZ, P.: Agricultural cooperatives and their development after the transformation...515 ORLOVITS, ZS.: The influence of the legal background on the transaction costs on the land market in Hungary...525 SADOWSKI, A.: Polish land market before and after transition...531 SZŐCS, I. FARKAS-FEKETE M. VINOGRADOV, S. A.: A new methodology for the estimation of land value...539

Innovation, education Innováció, tudásmenedzsment BAHATTIN, C. PARSEKER, Z. AKPINAR BAYIZIT, A. TURHAN, S.: Using e- commerce as an information technique in agri-food industry...553 DEÁKY Z. MOLNÁR M.: A gödöllıi falukutató hagyományok: múlt és jelen...563 ENDER, J. MIKÁCZÓ, A.: The benefits of a farm food safety system...575 FARKAS, T. KOLTA, D: The European identity and citizenship of the university students in Gödöllı...585 FLORKOWSKI, W. J.: Opportunities for innovation through interdisciplinary research...597 HUSTI I.: A hazai agrárinnováció lehetıségei és feladatai...605 KEREKES K.: A Kolozs megyei Vidéki Magyar fiatalok pályaválasztása...617 SINGH, R. MISHRA, J. K. SINGH, M. K.: The entrepreneurship model of business education: building knowledge economy...629 RITTER K.: Agrár-munkanélküliség és a területi egyenlıtlenségek Magyarországon...639 SZALAY ZS. G.: A menedzsment információs rendszerek költség-haszon elemzése...653 SZÉKELY CS.: A mezıgazdasági vállalati gazdaságtan fél évszázados fejlıdése...665 SZŐCS I. JÁRÁSI É. ZS. KÉSMÁRKI-GALLY SZ.: A kutatási eredmények sorsa és haszna...679 Authors index / Névjegyzék...689

AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND INTERNATIONAL VIEW AGRÁR- ÉS VIDÉKFEJLESZTÉS, NEMZETKÖZI KITEKINTÉS

Spatial labour market processes 45 SPATIAL LABOUR MARKET PROCESSES CSEH PAPP, IMOLA Abstract After the change of the political system, at the beginning of the 90 s, the territorial differences in Hungary deepened obviously. Approximately 1.5 millions jobs were terminated, the production in the former industrial centres declined, and the reorganization of the economical system started. All these afflicted the areas with the highest working power, so the crises in the different sectors of economy widened out into regional crises. Losing the Eastern markets in agriculture also destabilized the former structural and productional system, which were even deepened by the political decisions concerning the reorganization of the proprietorships. During a few years the rate of employment decreased dramatically, unemployment skyrocketed, and by 1993 it reached its peak at 13%. We can observe behind the significant changes big regional differences, and these differences have remained stable. As an effect of the changes the former differences have remained, though the differences between the underdeveloped regions and those with the more favoured labour markets have partly been reorganized, decreased or increased. Keywords: unemployment, regional differences, innovation, education Introduction My study aims to introduce spatial labour market processes, in order to expose specialty of these processes, to help understand the cause of regional differences, and to provide facilities for working out application methods of such processes. As an impact of the political system change in Hungary, former extant distinctions subsisted, however, the differences between the region with the less developed labour market and that with a more favourable one, showed realignment, increase or contraction. Western part of Hungary was able to adapt to changes more rapidly than the eastern. The western region began to build its economical relationships with Western-Europe from the early 90s, and foreign capital found relatively attractive conditions (Csete, 2005; Rechnitzer, 2005). Spread of unemployment in Hungary Unemployment, as a social phenomenon, appeared simultaneously with economical-social system change in Hungary. The first unemployed were registered in 1988, their number was only 5000, however, this number raised to 16.000 within one year, by 1989. The significant increase of unemployment happened to occur in 1991 and 1992, and the number of registered unemployed reached 680.000 by 1993. The rate of unemployment flushed to very high level during this short period of time (January 1991: 2,1%; February 1992: 13,6%), this rarely happens even in developed economies (Fig. No.1.) Since then unemployment rate had been continuously decreasing until 2001, and then the tendency had been slowly increasing again. The number of registered unemployed, with other words of nowadays, the number of registered job searchers is 402.670, which is equal to 7,6% (in June, 2007). Measurement of unemployment is a persistent manner in dispute, such as in other countries. Data registered by State Employment Service (ÁFSZ, predecessor in title was OMK) are queried, because they show figures about registered unemployed only.

46 Bull. of the Szent István Univ., Gödöllı, 2008. I use these data in my study. 800 000 700 000 Number of registered unemployed 600 000 500 000 400 000 300 000 200 000 100 000 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Fig. No. 1.: Fluctuation of unemployment rate after the political system change in Hungary (No. of persons) Source: ÁFSZ Material and methods Spread of unemployment is illustrated on the maps of Fig. No.2., showing quarterly intervals. Regions and settlements marked with black colour suffer from an unemployment rate over than 10%. The history of unemployment in Hungary shows that its spread is in accordance with logic of hierarchical expansion. Sectors characterized by an unemployment rate over than 10% are neighbours of each other. Other, newly entering, non-neighbouring sectors are mostly in an attractive labour-market zone that has not got a town as a centre, or its centre can hardly characterized as a city in real. These sectors that do not show real city-related functions belong to the first zone with the highest unemployment rate in each county. The size of districts, the size and development status of the district centre, and unemployment ratio strongly correlate with one other. We should add the drastic geographical definiteness between the western and eastern parts of Hungary. Simplifying the above mentioned, we can say that the spread and high intensity of unemployment depend on the western-eastern orientation and the size of settlement. Years

Spatial labour market processes 47 Labour-market zones with an unemployment rate over than 10% Fig. no. 2.: The spread of unemployment Source: OMK, 1995

48 Bull. of the Szent István Univ., Gödöllı, 2008. Actual situation of unemployment in Hungary I introduce the actual (June, 2007) unemployment situation in Hungary from three points of view: by region, by county, by settlement. Hungary joined the EU on 1st of May, 2004. Developing a regional system adequate to EU s five-level territorial classification was an important task during the period of preparation. According to NUTS2 system and European region forming practice, seven planning statistical regions have been formed. (Fig.No.3) (Marselek et al., 2005). Fig. no.3.: Regions of Hungary Source: KSH (National Statistical Office) Results Map Fig No. 4. shows the unemployment situation by region. By the size of unemployment rate the 7 regions of Hungary can be classified into 4 categories. Mid-Hungary region is in the best position (white colored area, up to 5% unemployment rate), then come Western- and Mid-Transdanubian regions (light grey, unemployment rate is between 5 and 10%). South- Transdanubian and South-Alföld regions unemployment status is considerably high (dark grey, 10-15% unemployed), while the worst situation is in Northern-Hungary and Northern- Alföld regions (black area, unemployment is between 15-20%). Fig. No. 4. Unemployment rate by region Self-calculated data

Spatial labour market processes 49 The labour market figure that helps compare the economical potential of certain regions, draws attention to three basic phenomena. First, the gap between the capital and the countryside, along with the central region and other regions is still remarkable. Secondly, a slow development process has begun in the Western- and Mid-Transdanubian regions. Finally, disparity between western and eastern regions, altogether with southern regions indicates further increase. Comparing labour-market circumstances of the counties (fig. No. 5.) we can see a difference even more remarkable. Unemployment rates and colours are the same as in case of the regions. County-level unemployment data indicate that ranking of counties has not changed substantially during the last 10 years. Regional differences remain obstinately stabile. Despite of the additional tools for regional development, the regions that face economical fall-behind do not experience any considerable improvement. The difference between the worst county s (which is Szabolcs-Szatmár county) and the best region s (which is Budapest) unemployment rate is 7-fold. Fig. No. 5. Unemployment rate by counties Self-calculated data The best circumstances exist in Gyır-Moson-Sopron and Pest counties, and in Budapest as well, where the unemployment rate is under 5% (white area). The worst unemployment figures come from Nógrád, Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén and Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg counties, (black zones with rate of 15-20%). The huge difference between the two borders of Hungary is obvious: keeping from the western part to the eastern, the number of unemployed is rising alike. Examining the causes of unemployment of certain small zones in Hungary, we see that in 1/5 th of small zones the rate of unemployed reaches the 1/4 th part of employed people. Really low unemployment figure, less than 5%, exists only in 1/5 th of settlements (Fig. No.6.). The value of unemployment rate and the related colours are the same as in case of the regions.

50 Bull. of the Szent István Univ., Gödöllı, 2008. Fig. No.6. Value of unemployment rate of small zones Self-calculated data In this context, settlements showing the smallest and the highest unemployment rate are listed in statistics of the State Employment Office (ÁFSZ, June 2007.). Accordingly, unemployment rate less than 3,5% exists in Budaörs (2,1%), Sopron (2,7%), Mosonmagyaróvár (3,3%), and Vác (3,4%). This figure is 4,5% in Gödöllı. Whereas, over than 15% unemployment rate is described in the following settlements: Gönc (20,2%), Encs (18,5%), Vásárosnamény (16,1%), and Baktalórántháza (15,2%). Fig. No. 7.: Settlements described by the lowest and the highest unemployment rate Self-calculated data Origin of regional differences In search of the origin of territorial differences we should go back in the past. Yet during the Austrian Hungarian Monarchy differences appeared, since the settlements being located near Vienna, the former capital, were developing faster. The following historical events enhanced disparity on: Trianon Pact in 1920, market loss of agriculture due to the collapse of the Soviet Union from the year of 1989, crisis of heavy industry since the 90 s. Following to the First Wold War, victorious states established the claim for the railway lines that then connected the Hungarian main cities from Kassa to Temesvár. As a consequence of it, only two main cities remained on the eastern part of Hungary: Miskolc and Debrecen. It is

Spatial labour market processes 51 obvious that the development of the towns of Nyíregyháza and Békéscsaba began later on. Owing to the above mentioned facts, important borderline regions remained without a town, thus obstructing the process of economical development. Considering distribution of employment by main national economical sectors, between 1990 and 1997 agriculture suffered the most important headcount loss. Contrary to the 11% decrease of the number of employed people, this sector showed 1/3 rd loss of labour force. This can partly be explained by the organizational changes and the separation of former, notagrarian ancillary activities. Output-decline played a more important part, which was a result of the loss of traditional export markets, diminution of private consumption and intensifying competition. Economical difficulties of agriculture affected rather the eastern part of Hungary. The number of people employed in the industrial sector decreased by 13% between 1990 and 1994. In the first period, the labour-force of the processing and building industries was diminishing, however, the headcount of the electricity, gas and heating public services remained constant. Crisis of heavy industry affected the northern-eastern labour-market at most (Schwertner, 2002). Distinctiveness of regional differences Analyzing regional differences that raised in the country, we can find basic specialties (Schwertner, 1994; Vajsz-Pummer 2004), such as: stability of regional differences, westerneastern oriented dualism, converse coherence between the size of settlement and rate of unemployment. Following the change of unemployment rate since 1990, it is evident that neither the level of regions, nor that of the counties or labour market zones have shown a significant relative change. From the regional point of view, regional differences known since the end of 1991 have become preserved. Big cities, regions of Western-Transdanubium, and attractive tourist areas are in a favourable situation. Zones principally affected by a high unemployment rate, form one block on the north-eastern and eastern part of Hungary, while they are dispersed on the Alföld and Transdanubium parts. Difference between the western and eastern parts of the country is not a new phenomenon. This regional inequality is secular and can be explained by certain historical reasons, while geographical distinctiveness is also important. Infrastructural and social statistical figures uniformly indicate the relatively low development level of the eastern part of Hungary contrary to the development status of Transdanubium. Two settlement types can be defined from the appearance of unemployment: difference of chance of cities and villages. The unemployment rate of villages is double than that of towns. This originates from that most of the villages have been considered as employment deficient regions for decades. Major part of rural unemployed comes from former commuters. At the same time, unemployment rate in the agrarian sector has significantly increased as well. We can conclude that the smaller the settlement is, the bigger the unemployment rate is. (Csete, 2005; Rechnitzer, 2005).

52 Bull. of the Szent István Univ., Gödöllı, 2008. Conclusions Chances for obtaining a job, the level of employment and degree of unemployment significantly differ from each other on a territorial basis. In several regions of Hungary, principally on settlements belonging to small regions, labour market circumstances are more favourable comparing to that of other definitely stagnant, declining regions. On the whole, I can say that there is a significant territory-based diversification in the above mentioned indexes. Outstanding regional differences within Hungary have become and remained incisive since the 90 s. This justifies the need for an emphasized economical-social cohesion altogether with preventing the break away of certain regions, social and corporate groups. It is a fact that Hungary is divided into two parts, to a western and an eastern part. The western region makes good advantage of the closeness of Austria, which pulls up and invigorates the economy. This leads to the revelation that we should better exploit the opportunities of regional cross-border cooperation. Regional differences have not become slighter by the first years of the XXI. Century, what is more, they turned to be sharper. Ranking of income production among counties has not changed very much. Counties of Alföld and Northern-Hungary are dropping behind, at the same time; Western counties near the innovation areas keep their leading position. It is to be feared that due to the increasing degree of difference owing to which, the regions of the country have diverged instead of convergence, the so said cohesion, regional togetherness weakens in Hungary. References CSETE, L. (2005): Sustainable system of agrarian- and regional development. Farming. 2. sz., 3-16 p. MARSELEK, S. VAJSZ, T. PUMMER, L. (2005): Comparison of regions of Hungary, examination of distinctive factors. Competitiveness of environmental protection, and competitive power of regions. International Scientific Conference Pécs. III. 49-58 p. RECHNITZER, J. (2005): Why do people in Transdanubium live a better quality of life than on the Alföld region? Regional differences and techniques of maintenance. University of Knowledge, 7 th semester, 11 th lecture 23. November, 2005. SCHWERTNER, J. (1994): Regional strains on the Hungarian labour market. Ministry of Employment, manuscript SCHWERTNER, J. (2002): State of employment in regional development, Munkaügyi Szemle, 3. sz. 19-21 p. VAJSZ, T. PUMMER, L. (2004): Regional differences in Hungary, analyzation of divergences www.nkfp014.hu/dokumentumok/nkfp/krf260; download: 3 July, 2007. Author: Imola Csehné Papp, PhD, associate professor Institute of Human Sciences, Language and Teacher s Training Studies papp.imola@gtk.szie.hu