Palynological evidence for Neogene climatic change in Hungary

Ocassional Papers of the Geological Institute of Hungary, volume 205 Palynological evidence for Neogene climatic change in Hungary ESZTER NAGY Geological Institute of Hungary, 2005

A Magyar Állami Földtani Intézet 205. Alkalmi kiadványa Vol. 205 of the Occassional Papers of the Geological Institute of Hungary Copyright Magyar Állami Földtani intézet (Geological Institute of Hungary), 2005 Minden jog fenntartva All rights reserved! Sponsors: Országos Tudományos Kutatási Alap Hungarian National Science Foundation Magyar Tudományos Akadémia VIII. Biológiai Tudományok Osztálya, X. Földtudományok Osztálya Hungarian Academy of Sciences VIII. Section of Biological Sciences X. Section of Earth Sciences Reviewers: GÉZA HÁMOR ENIKŐ MAGYARI Translator: MIKLÓS KÁZMÉR Technical Editors: OLGA PIROS, DEZSŐ SIMONYI DTP: OLGA PIROS Cover design: ZOLTÁN TÓTH Kiadja a Magyar Állami Földtani Intézet Published by the Geological Institute of Hungary Responsible editor: KÁROLY BREZSNYÁNSZKY Director ISBN 963 671 250 6

Contents Tartalom Introduction....................................................... Methods......................................................... Palaeoclimatic interpretation......................................... Early Miocene.................................................. Egerian..................................................... Eggenburgian................................................ Ottnangian.................................................. Middle Miocene................................................. Karpatian................................................... Badenian (Lower and Middle Badenian)........................... Upper Miocene................................................. Upper Badenian.............................................. Sarmatian................................................... Pannonian (sensu PAPP 1985).................................... Pontian (sensu STEVANOVIĆ 1990)................................ Pliocene....................................................... Palaeoclimatological summary........................................ Early Miocene.................................................. Egerian..................................................... Early Egerian climate....................................... Late Egerian climate........................................ Eggenburgian climate.......................................... Ottnangian climate............................................ Early Miocene climate......................................... Middle Miocene................................................. Karpatian climate............................................. Early Middle Badenian climate................................. Middle Miocene climate..................................... Late Miocene................................................ Late Badenian climate...................................... Sarmatian climate.......................................... Pannonian climate.......................................... 5 6 8 8 8 13 15 22 22 28 34 34 36 41 46 51 53 53 53 53 54 54 55 56 56 56 57 57 57 57 58 58 3

Pontian climate............................................ Late Miocene climate....................................... Pliocene (Dacian) climate...................................... The Miocene climatic curve....................................... *** A magyarországi neogén éghajlati adatai palinológiai kutatások alapján....... A téma kialakulásának körülményei.................................... A kutatás módja................................................... Értékelés......................................................... Alsó-miocén................................................... Egri..................................................... Eggenburgi............................................... Ottnangi................................................. Középső-miocén............................................... Kárpáti.................................................. Badeni (alsó- és középső-badeni).............................. Felső-miocén.................................................. Felső-badeni.............................................. Szarmata.................................................... Pannóniai (sensu PAPP 1985).................................... Pontusi (sensu STEVANOVIĆ 1990)................................ Pliocén....................................................... Összefoglaló értékelés.............................................. Kora-miocén.................................................. Egri..................................................... A kora-egri éghajlata..................................... A késő-egri éghajlata..................................... Az eggenburgi éghajlata..................................... Az ottnangi éghajlata....................................... A kora-miocén éghajlata..................................... Középső-miocén............................................... A kárpáti éghajlata......................................... A kora- és középső-badeni éghajlata........................... A középső-miocén éghajlata.................................. Késő-miocén.................................................. A késő-badeni éghajlata..................................... A szarmata éghajlata.......................................... A pannóniai éghajlata.......................................... A pontusi éghajlata............................................ A késő-miocén éghajlata....................................... A pliocén dáciai emelet éghajlata.................................. A miocén éghajlati görbe........................................... Irodalom References............................................. 58 58 59 59 71 72 73 75 75 75 80 82 86 86 90 94 94 96 99 102 105 107 107 107 107 108 109 109 110 111 111 112 112 113 113 113 113 114 114 114 115 116 4

Introduction Palynological research offers significant data for palaeoclimatological interpretation. Deep appreciation of the morphology of modern pollen grains and their comparison with fossil counterparts of various ages offer a solid basis for recognition of their relationship, allowing to draw conclusions on past climates. During a lifetime of palaeopalynological research the author always cared to know both fossil and related Recent floras. Besides learning from handbooks (BERTSCH 1942; ERDTMAN 1943, 1952, 1957, etc), I persistently made attemps to study herbaria, botanical gardens, and the vegetation itself under warmer climates. Necessarily, only limited opportunities were available for the latter. Fortunately, my initial studies concerned Quaternary pollen floras, along with the Recent local flora. As my studies progressed towards the Neogene, I approached terra incognita: there was no previous description available on the palynoflora of the Pannonian Basin. Besides routine work mostly on borehole sequences, I described the Neogene palynomorphs of Hungary (in monographs published in 1958, 1963, 1969, 1985, 1992, and in several papers published in Acta Botanica Hungarica, Pollen et Spores, Grana, etc.). These publications contained known climatic data of supposed recent counterparts of the fossil flora, supplying geologists with palaeoclimatological data. Several of my papers (NAGY 1958, 1967a, 1969, 1970, 1990, 1992a, b) offered a graphical representation and palaeoclimatic interpretation of my data. In association with Lajos Ó. Kovács, computer specialist we developed a graphical method to present climatological (temperature) data of Berhida 3 borehole (Pannonian Pontian) (NAGY and Ó. KOVÁCS 1997). Studies published in several papers by the author and others applied this method. The present study is based on the method outlined there. We attempt a reconstruction of Neogene climate based on major borehole successions of Hungary. This study was supported by Hungarian National Science Foundation grant OTKA T 032201. 5

Methods The present interpretation is based on sporomorph studies throughout several decades. Naturally, the quality of data varies, due to various purposes of sampling of borehole profiles (metric subdivision, lithological changes), rarely for palynological purposes. No samples were available for each centimetre of the successions, as is customary for Holocene and Pleistocene profiles. Meeting deadlines often in a rush did not help either. As palynological research is time-consuming and expensive (chemicals, light and electron microscopy, photography), the data are valuable, and their manifold use is imperative. A lifetime of palynological studies is now reviewed, and a revised palaeoclimatological interpretation is offered (NAGY and Ó. KOVÁCS 1997). 6 Figure 1. Outcrop and borehole localities 1. ábra. A vizsgált szelvények, fúrások névadó településeinek térképe

Spore and pollen data from selected subsurface profiles and outcrops suitable for palaeoclimatological interpretation were grouped in tropical, subtropical and temperate groups. The place of the settlements nearby the boreholes and outcrops can find see Figure 1. Climatological interpretation is based mostly on WILLIS (1957, 1966) and WALTER and LIETH (1960 1967). For each sample temperature values were calculated according to NAGY and Ó. KOVÁCS (1997), illustrated in plots. The temperature values are thought to be relative, since the calculated values express not the concrete annual mean temperature of the studied period, but indicate only the character of change with time. All taxa were omitted for which no climatological data were available. Beyond temperature the most significant climate data further features were recorded, especially presence of xerophylic forms. Since preservation of sporomorphs is enhanced in humid environments, xerophylic forms are not in situ, but their presence can be assumed not far from the site of embedding. Pteridophytes are significant, being widespread under warmer climates, in the subtropics, rain forests, as I have seen in NE Queensland rain forest and in the subtropical mesophyllous forest in Southern China. ANDREÁNSZKY (1955) and WALTER (1964) considered pteridophytes an important climate indicator. Ecological interrelationships were considered following the principle of actualism. Palaeoeographical knowledge (distribution of land and sea, mountains and plains) helped to solve certain problems. 7

Palaeoclimatic interpretation Egerian Early Miocene Egerian formations are relatively small in lateral extent. However, they have direct connections towards the SW, Slovenia and the Transylvanian Basin (HÁMOR et al. 1988; HÁMOR 2001). The Lower Egerian stage of Oligocene age (HÁMOR 2001) is represented by samples from a 80 m borehole in the Wind brickyard and from outcropping Bed x (Figure 2, BÁLDI 1966). Six samples of the underlying Kiscell Clay (80.3 36.2 m) contains only nearshore planktonic orgamisms, characteristic for the Oligocene (NAGY 1979). BÁLDI (1966) considered the sequence as of Egerian age from 32.2 m upwards. The following samples were studied: glauconitic, tuffitic sandstone (32.5 21.5 m, 2 samples), mollusc clay (18.3 4.0 m, 10 samples), outrcopping Bed x (2 samples). Macroflora from the latter is called lower flora by Andreánszky, Legányi and Pálfalvy. Bed x and the underlying Lower Egerian samples are called lower flora here. Upwards there is sterile mollusc sand, overlain by clay. The enclosed macroflora is the so-called middle flora, associated with rich palynoflora, Late Egerian in age. There are no sporomorphs in the overlying 40 m succession of various sandstone and 8 Figure 2. Eger, Wind brickyard profile (outcrop and borehole combined; after BÁLDI 1966) 2. ábra. A Wind téglagyár udvarán létesült fúrás és feltárás szelvénye (BÁLDI 1966 szerint módosítva)

Figure 3. The temperature curve of Lower Egerian section. Borehole, Wind brickyard, Eger 3. ábra. Az alsó-egri rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Eger, Wind téglagyári fúrás sand. The next Bed u (with Unio) contains rich macroflora, the upper flora. Samples were taken every 20 cm; 37 samples in total from a 15-16 m profile (NAGY 1979). Late Egerian is of Miocene age (HÁMOR 2001). The holostratotype profile of the Egerian stage yielded uniform temperature data (Figures 3, 4). Early Egerian temperature ranged from 16.3 to 22.7 C, Late Egerian from 16.9 to 21.9 C. There are more tropical and subtropical than temperate elements. Occasionally tropical elements are dominant. Presence of tropical elements is the largest difference from present-day flora of the Pannonian Basin. Members of Sapotaceae family are most frequent, occurring in 16 of 42 samples (determined after THOMSON and PFLUG 1953), well-known in the Rhein coal deposits since the Palaeocene. WILLIS (1966) mentions Sapotaceae as follows 35 75 ill-defined genus, 800 species, tropus. Mostly trees. Occurrence: Africa, Malaysia to Pacific, Indochina, SE Asia, Australia, Solomon Islands, W. I., tr. Am.. Heinrich WALTER (1964, p. 105) mentions that Sapotaceae are members of the 60 m tall tree association in the Amazon tropical rain forest. Urania Pflanzenwelt writes: cca. 800 species belong to Sapotaceae, mostly tropical or subtropical with a few exceptions only (DANERT et al. 1976). There is a single species in SW Mexico forming arid Figure 4. The temperature curve of Lower Egerian section. Outcrop, Wind brickyard, Eger 4. ábra. A felső-egri rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Eger, Wind téglagyári feltárás 9

forests. Genus Bumelia extends as far to the north as Illinois in the US and as far as Argentina in the south. Sapotacea mostly live in tropical rainforest and savanna (REHDER 1934, p. 732). Sapotaceae is associated with Araliaceae family (WALTER 1964). We found them together in the Lower Egerian sample 10.9 11.1 m, in Bed x, and in Upper Egerian Bed u, Sample 8. Lowest part of rain forest at sea level is formed by palms (WALTER 1964). There are palm pollens (Calamus) in the Lower Egerian profile (9.2 9.7 m), Monocolpopollenites tranquillis and Sabalpollenites sp. in the following 3 samples above and in Bed x. There is large amount of Calamus pollen in the upper flora (Bed u, samples 9, 10, 11, 12). Calamus occurs together with other palm pollens at least as single specimens in almost all samples of the succession. Tropical fern spores are mostly from the undergrowth: Cicatricosisporites (Aneimia), Osmunda, Gleichenia, Leiotriletes (Lygodium), Polypodiaceae, Cyathea, Cibotium, Pteridium, Asplenium, and Selaginella. Some of them were possibly epiphytes, as I have seen in the rain forest NE of Brisbane. Pentapollenites (Dodonaea, Sapindaceae) indicates aridity among the tropical Egerian species. Several morphologically distinct species are present. It occurs together with further xerophylic species both in Lower and Upper Egerian samples. Xerophylic species Lower Egerian Upper Egerian Wind brickyard, borehole Wind brickyard, outcrop Dodonaea 9.2 9.7, 8.3 9.2, 7.8 8.3 xf, 8, 12 Symplocos 23 Ephedra xa Myrtus xf, 9, 14, 23 Ilex 21.5 21.9, xa xf, k 7, 9, 32 Artemisia 9.2 9.7 Chenopodiaceae 8.3 9.2 Compositae 8.3 9.2 11 Symplocos pollen occurs in relatively few samples. It occurs both in the tropics and subtropics in Asia, Australia, Polynesia, and America (WILLIS 1966). Urania Pflanzenwelt mentions (DANERT et al. 1976) green shrub in summer of the Atlantic coast to Delaware, also in North China and Japan. Symplocos occurs in periodically changing, arid, mountain climate. These features indicate that despite many tropical elements does not indicate either rain forest or tropical environment, but warm subtropical climate with an arid season. Pollen of genus Podocarpus is very frequent (in 4 samples of 14 in Lower Egerian, in 10 samples of 16 in Upper Egerian). WILLIS (1964) informs that 100 species of Podocarpus lives from tropical to temperate zones, mostly in the southern hemisphere. Northwards it extends to the Himalayas and Japan. WALTER (1964, p. 203) considers of typical representative of a tropical subalpine forest, together with Dacrydium. There is Podocarpus and Dacrydium together in sample 9.1 9.7 m and in Bed k. Few Engelhardtia pollens occur in both substages of Egerian, in almost all samples. WALTER (1964) mentions Engelhardtia from zones above 1800 m in Java 10

( Regenwälder bei abhähmender Temperatur ), WILLIS (1966) lists it from the Himalayas to Taiwan, in SE Asia, Malaysia, and in Mexico and Central America. Walter found it to grow under 12 to 17 C mean annual tempreature in Java, 3400 mm annual rainfall, and maximum 3 week long arid season. It means that Engelhardtia lives in a tropical region under subtropical conditions. That s why it still occurs in the Pontian stage of the Pannonian Basin. Sporomorphs do not indicate marsh environment in the Eger profile, despite frequent occurrence of Cyrillicae pollen. Taxodiaeceae Cupressaceae forests are represented by few pollen only (note that these plants live outside marshes, too). Myrica and Nyssa the definitive indicators of marsh environment are missing. There are a few definitely subtropical species (extending to the Mediterranean belt, too), which exclude a tropical environment for the Eger profile: Ginkgo, Cedrus, Sciadopitys, and Mediterranean Pinus taeda, Zelkova pollen. Definite temperate species are rare: Alnus pollen is found from Lower Egerian. Upwards there is an increase in temperate genera: Pinus sylvestris-type conifers, Carpinus, Acer, Ostrya species. Warm temperate climate is indicated by Castanea, Juglans, Carya, Pterocarya. Still, tropical and subtropical species dominated over temperate ones during Egerian age. There are frequent quercoid-type pollens, which are not comparable to present-day Quercus (cupuliferoid types of POTONIÉ, THOMSON and THIERGART 1950). Abies and Picea pollen in the Eger profile are considered temperate. These genere occur above 4000 m in the tropics and subtropics. The Eger profile is represents a warm subtropical climate, with 20 C mean annual temperature, cca. 1500 mm annual rainfall, variable precipitation over the year. There is a short, dry period each year. 19 C mean annual temperature was calculated for the Early, and 18.97 C for the Late Egerian from holostratotype data. Besides palynological studies (NAGY 1963a, 1979b, 1985, 1992) macroflora was collected, determined and interpreted from Eger (ANDREÁNSZKY 1943a, b, 1955, 1956, 1962, 1966; PÁLFALVY 1961; NAGY and PÁLFALVY 1963; HABLY 1983; KVAČEK and HABLY 1991; HABLY and FERNANDEZ MARON 1998). Andreánszky considered the Eocene as warmest period of the Tertiary. Oligocene has seen dramatic cooling, when southern hemisphere and east Asian subtropical elements increased. Tropical elements are reduced, there are less palms, while Coniferae increase. Upper flora is characterized by tropical elements, increasing broadleaved plants and ferns with increasing precipitation. Turgay elements appear. It might be considered as a result of topographic changes. Palynology offers a similar contradictory picture. Most of tropical ferns: Cicatricosisporites lusaticus, Clavifera, Cibotiides zonatus are in Lower Egerian, and further Cicatricosisporites, Gleichenia species appear in the upper flora. At the same time Coniferae also increase in abundance. Besides subtropical Coniferae (Cedrus, Pinus taeda, Cathaya, Taxodiaceae) there are temperate ones, too (Abies, Picea). Besides Mediterranean broadleaved trees (Myrica, Olea, Zelkova) there are also temperate ones: Acer, Carpinus, Alnus. Warm, subtropical climate ensured the survival of tropical elements, and mountains in the background the existence of temperate vegetation. HABLY (1983) corroborated the presence of temperate elements in the lower flora. 11

Andreánszky s opinion is supported by palynology: increase of palms in Late Egerian indicates change in the flora, while mean annual temperature remained the same. Probably dry and wet periods alternated. Dodonaea species are one of the indicators of aridity, indicating relationship not only with the southern hemisphere, but with Northern Africa and Sahara, too (WALTER 1964). Podocarpus is also an element of the southern hemisphere, although extending to SE Asia, too. Presence of xerophylic Saharan Dodonaea species and results of HABLY and FERNANDEZ MARRON (1998) suggests that Early Oligocene southern European subxerophytic species survived into the Egerian in Hungary. Significant amount of Leguminosae (Tricolporopollenites ssp. fallax) supports it. More than half of macroflora species found at Eger (HABLY 1991 30 out of 53, i.e. 56.6%) was recognized in the pollen flora. Lower part of Fót 1 borehole (189.0 372.0 m, Szécsény Schlier Formation) is considered as Upper Egerian by Hámor and Halmai. Egerian and overlying Karpatian beds can not be distinguished reliably, neither by foraminifers (GELLAI pers. comm.), nor by palynoflora. Sixty-eight samples yielded a rich flora, containing all characteristic tropical, subtropical and temperate species of the Egerian. Several species represent most genera (possibly due to the large number of samples and better preservation in clay than in the Eger profile). There are much more planktonic organisms (Deflandrea spinulosa, Pleurozonaria manumi, P. minor) indicating neashore, marine environment. Freshwater plankton is identical with Eger. Ferns are represented by very many species. The climatic curve shows temperature ranging from 22.5 C to 13.3 C. Mean annual temperature was 17 C (Figure 5). The curve is relatively straight. Lowest values are more than 3 degrees lower than of the holostratotype, due to an increase in Coniferae, mostly Pinus sylvestris pollen. Not counting them, total number of tropical and subtropical elements is larger than of temperate ones. Abundance of temperate element (pines) might be due to geographic differences. Both localities represent nearshore environment based on marine plankton, but Eger is more proximal to the shore: more sand samples and presence of frequent Calamus Figure 5. The temperature curve of Upper Egerian section, borehole Fót 1 5. ábra. A felső-egri rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Fót 1 fúrás 12 pollen indicating a delta or estuary. Probably Fót was farther from the shore, receiving more windborne Coniferae pollen.

Tata TVG 27 borehole is to the west from the other two profiles. Two samples of te 16.5 m profile yielded pollen flora. Pollen spectra indicate typical Upper Egerian flora: Sapotaceae, Dodonaea, Cicatricosisporites sp., Polypodiaceoipollenites gracillimus. Temperature of the Egerian ranged between 15 C and 18 C. Mean annual temperature was 19 C in the Early Egerian (max. 22.7 C, min. 14.8 C). Late Egerian mean was 18 C (max. 25.6 C,min. 12.7 C). Mean annual temperature for the Egerian age in total was 18.25 C. Eggenburgian Eggenburgian seas were of lesser extent in Hungary than Egerian seas (HÁMOR et al. 1988). Many samples were examined for pollen with meagre results due to infavourable lithology. Eggenburgian transgression progressed from east to west, from the Transylvanian Basin towards Sajó Valley, Ózd, Cserhát, Buda Hills (HÁMOR 1997). Two boreholes, Püspökhatvan 4 and Budajenő 2, dated by marine plankton represent this age. Eggenburgian climate is based on the study of forty samples from 185.0 to 306.0 m interval of Püspökhatvan 4 borehole (Szécsény Schlier Formation). The temperature curve (Figure 6) oscillates around 18 C with a mean value of 18.7 C. Highest calculated temperature is 22 C, the lowest is 13.5 C. There are five points higher than 20 C, and two lower than 15 C. There are less tropical species than in the Egerian. There are no Lauraceae, Lobelia, Symplocos, Magnolia, Utricularia, and Calamus. There are no Osmunda, Gleichenia, Cicatricosisporites, and Favoisporites spores. Spores present are Polypodiisporites histiopteroides, P. secundus, P. repandus, P. clatriformis, Polypodiaceoisporites helveticus, P. lusaticus, Corrugatisporites paucivallatus, Dictyophyllidites pessinensis, Punctatisporites crassiexinus, Microfoveolatosporites sellingi. Tropical and subtropical species dominate over temperate ones in all samples. There are very few xerophylic taxa: Ephedra, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Dodonaea in one sample each, Ilex in three samples. Figure 6. The temperature curve of Eggenburgian section, borehole Püspökhatvan 4 6. ábra. Az eggenburgi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Püspökhatvan 4 fúrás 13

Temperature and rainfall distribution was more even than in the Egerian. Probably there was a warm, subtropical climate, where the dry period was longer than the rainy one, while aridity was limited, possibly due to proximity of the sea. There was no strong rainy season either, indicated by low amount of fern spores. Lithology is not favourable for sporpomorph preservation: even large pollen producers like Alnus are represented by a few specimens only. Nine samples of Budajenő 2 borehole (488.5 575.9 m) yielded 5 ones suitable for palaeoclimatic interpretation (518.5 575.9 m, Mány Formation). Highest temperature is 22.3 C, lowest is 13.4 C. Previously unknown elements appear: Agavaceae, Alangium, Malvaceae. Malvacearumpollis bakonyensis NAGY 1962 described from the Ottnangian of Várpalota 133 borehole is certainly tropical. Its high abundance in the Indian Lower Miocene allowed the establishment of a Malvacearumpollis bakonyensis cenozone (RAO 1995, SAXENA and RAO 1996). RAO (1995) suggested that M. bakonyensis lived near the seashore. Sample 575.5 575. 9 m of Budajenő 2 borehole indicates warm, rainy, subtropical seashore environment occupied by a marsh forest. A nearby land was occupied by Ephedra, while mountains in the background supported Ostrya and Juglans, mixed with Coniferae. The terrestrial Zagyvapálfalva Formation overlies the marine succession (HÁMOR 1997). Several boreholes and outcrops were investigated, which yielded no useful palynological data (boreholes Egyházasgerge 1, Nógrádmegyer 1, Nógrádsipek 1, sand pits Nagybátony-Szorospatak, Zagyvapálfalva, Sóshartyán-Korpástető, Kisterenye- Aranyhegy, gravel pit Kazár, Kazár I profile, marine Eggenburgian strata at Ipolytarnóc (NAGY 1992) Tököl 1 borehole found deltaic sediments (Tordas Member of Zagyvapálfalva Formation) with poor and poorly preserved marine plankton, unsuitable for palaeoclimatic analysis. Balaton 26 borehole (521.1 604.2 m) is Eggeburgian (Pétervására Sandstone Formation). Five samples from the marine environment of 581.5 585.5 m yielded sporomorphs indicating 19 C mean annual temperature. Terrestrial environments (Pápa 2 borehole in the northern Bakony, Szászvár 2 borehole in Mecsek Mts) are characterized by freshwater algae. Selective fossilization yielded a flora consisting solely very thick walled spores in Pápa 2 borehole all of tropical origin, unsuitable for palaeoclimatic interpretation. Eggenburgian section of Szászvár 8 borehole did not yield useful data. Tekeres 1 borehole (1020.7 1024.2 m, Szászvár Formation) yielded a few sporomorphs, indicating 19.5 C mean annual temperature. For a discussion of stratigraphy see HÁMOR (1997). Twenty-one samples from 1029.3 1393.7 m section of Lajoskomárom 1 borehole at Mezőföld (eastern Transdanubia) were studied (Budafa Formation). Six of them yielded sporomorphs. Highest mean annual temperature is 19.8 C, lowest 13.2 C. Pleurozonaria digitata occurs in most samples, Micrhystridium sp. in the topmost one, indicating marine environment. Botryococcus braunii occurring with Pleurozonaria indicated freshwater influx. Tropical elements are Sapotaceae, Engelhardtia, Monocolpopollenites tranquillus, Cibotiides zonatus, Leiotriletes maxoides maximus, 14

Figure 7. The temperature curve of Eggenburgian section, borehole Lajoskomárom 1 7. ábra. Az eggenburgi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Lajoskomárom 1 fúrás subtropicals are Tricolporopollenites cingulum pusillus, Taxodiaceae, Myrica, temperate ones are Pinuspollenites labdacus, T. cingulum oviformis, and Alnipollenites verus. Temperature curve is very similar to Püspökhatvan 4 plot (Figure 7). Summarizing data on Eggenburgian climate one can say that there was evenly warm subtropical climate, 18 C mean annual temperature, a relatively long dry season, 1200 1500 mm annual precipitation. Ottnangian Extent of Ottnangian sediments is much smaller than of Eggenburgian in Hungary (HÁMOR et al. 1988, HÁMOR 1997). The lower boundary is easily recognized by the lower rhyolite tuff (19.6±1.4 My). Repeated trangression progressed from SE to NE (HÁMOR 1997, 2001), reaching the longitude of Salgótarján only. At the Sajó river the Salgótarján Lignite Formation was deposited in marine, paralic environment, changing towards lacustrine northwestward. At Salgótarján only the uppermost Bed I is paralic (HÁMOR 1997). Terrestrial settings are either limnic or fluviatile. The first palynological study of Salgótarján Lignite Formation was made by SIMONCSICS (1959, 1960). The author s efforts were part of a team Figure 8. The temperature curve of underlayer Eggenburgian section, borehole Kurittyán 630 8. ábra. A fekü eggenburgi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Kurittyán 630 fúrás 15

Figure 9. The temperature curve of Ottnangian section, Seam V (Feketevölgy, Sajókaza) 9. ábra. Az ottnangi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Sajókaza, Feketevölgy V. telep studying the Borsod coal region for five years (NAGY and RÁKOSI 1993, BOHN- HAVAS et al. 1998). A composite profile in eastern Borsod Basin suitable for palaeoclimatic interpretation represents the region. Underlying Eggenburgian sediments were hit by Kurittyán 630 borehole (189.1 262.6 m). Six samples provided 18.4 C mean annual temperature (Figure 8). The lowermost Seam 5 (Feketevölgy, Sajókaza). Thirty-nine samples were examined from the 4 m thick coal bed. The coal contains clay and sand laminae, top is silicified. Only 28 samples were suitable for interpretation. There are few freshwater plankton (Spirogyra) in samples 9 and 3, where an associated Avicennia indicates mangrove. Dominant marsh forests produced organic matter for coal formation: Taxodiaceae, Myrica, Cyrilla, less Nyssa. This subtropical marsh forest describes climate parameters (Figure 9). Highest mean annual temperature is shown in samples from the bottom of the coal bed: 17.5 C (sample 2), lowest in the middle: 12.5 C (sample 20). Mean temperature averaged from all samples of the coal bed is 15.5 C. There was a wet an a dry season. Dry season has seen leafs of the Taxodiaceae forest fall when xerophylic Ephedra, Dodonaea and palm pollens easily spread into the forest. Calamus, a Figure 10. The temperature curve of Ottnangian section, barren, borehole Tardona 30 10. ábra. Az ottnangi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Tardona 30 fúrás meddő 16

climbing palm in Taxodiaceae forests occurs. There are few tropical species, low in individuals. Besides the mentioned palms and Dodonaea there are few Sapotaceae, Engelhardtia, Araliaceae, Leguminosae. A few Cycas indicates mountain environment nearby. There is subtropical Ginkgo and Zelkova, too. Temperate Ulmus, Alnus, Carya, Pterocarya, Salix, and quercoid species grew in a lake- or riverside forest with fern undergrowth. Mean annual temperature was 15.9 C with 1000 1500 mm precipitation, dry and wet seasons alternating, situated close to the sea. Clastic sediments above the coal of Bed V are represented by five samples of Tardona 30 borehole (327.0 340.0 m) (Figure 10). Swamp forest elements (Taxodiaceae, Myrica, Nyssa) disappear, while tropical elements increase. Elements of a mountain forest (Pinaceae, Cedrus) appear, reducing mean temperature values. There are Podocarpaceae, Sapotaceae, single Cycas, Dacrydium and in almost all samples Araliaceae pollen grains, and tropical fern spores. Pollen of southeast Asian plants Ginkgo, Sciadopitys, Liquidambar és Lonicera are present, too. Alternating dry and wet seasons are proven by temperate genera (Salix, Acer, Carya). Mean annual temperature calculated from pollen spectra of the clastics is somewhat higher than of the coal beds: mean 17.2 C maximum 20 C, minimum 13.6 C. Diósgyőr 366 borehole (333.8 350.5 m) represents the overburden of Bed V, as shown by a comparison of Figures 10 and 11. Bed IV, 2 m thick, is mined at Lyukóbánya. Fourteen of 20 samples taken were used for interpretation. This bed is less coalified than Bed V, therefore contains more sporomorphs. Tropical elements are identical, while fern spores exceed those in Bed V. Besides a very rich swamp forest elements of mangrove were present. There are traces of marine influence: sample 9 contains marine plankton. Sample 20 contains freshwater Botryococcus braunii, marine plankton, and mangrove pollen. Marine inundation occurred above Sample 2. There are tropical Podocarpus, Engelhardtia, Cycas, elements of a subtropical, temperate mixed forest and gallery forest. Highest temperature calculated for the succession is 17.6 C, lowest is 14.3 C, mean temperature is 15.8 C, somewhat higher than that of Bed V. There are no major excursions in the temperature curve (Figure 12). Figure 11. The temperature curve of Ottnangian section, borehole Diósgyőr 366 11. ábra. Az ottnangi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Diósgyőr 366 fúrás 17

Figure 12. The temperature curve of Ottnangian section, Seam IV Lyukóbánya 12. ábra. Az ottnangi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Lyukóbánya IV. telep Figure 13. The temperature curve of Ottnangian section, borehole Tardona 72 13. ábra. Az ottnangi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Tardona 72 fúrás Layers between seams III and IV are represented by 10 samples from Tardona 72 borehole (182.5 314. 6 m). Mean temperature was 14.65 C, highest value 17.6 C, lowest value 107 C. The temperature curve is more variable than of Seam IV (Figure 13), although it might be due to its greater thickness (129.1 m). There are no samples from Seam III. Layers between Seams III and II are represented by a single sample of Diósgyőr 366 borehole (233.5 m). Temperature was 16.6 C. Seam II is represented by a 1 m thick coal bed in Edelény, shaft IV. There are almost no sporomorphs in the 14 samples taken. The temperature curve is almost linear (Figure 14). Mean temperature based on 3 samples was 15.4 C. Tropical elements are Cycas, Podocarpus, Cyrilla, Polypodiaceoiporites cf. gracillimus. Subtropical swamp forests are represented by Taxodiaceae, Myrica, mountain environment by Podocarpus, Pinus sylvestris típus, Abietinaepollenites microalatus, Cedrus, freshwater open forest by Carya, Ulmus, and Rhus. There are no samples from Seam I. Overburden succession is represented by 5 samples from Diósgyőr 366 borehole (31.6 208.1 m). Calculated mean temperature was 14.8 C, with 16.65 C maximum and 14.2 C minimum (Figure 15). 18

Figure 14. The temperature curve of Ottnangian section, Seam II, shaft IV, Edelény 14. ábra. Az ottnangi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, II. telep, Edelény IV. akna Figure 15. The temperature curve of Ottnangian beds, overburden, borehole Diósgyőr 366 15. ábra. Az ottnangi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Diósgyőr 366 fúrás, fedő Averages are shown below: Average values: overburden Diósgyőr 366 14.80 C Seam II Edelény 15.40 C barren zone Diósgyőr 366 16.60 C Seam III barren zone Tardona 72 14.65 C Seam IV Lyukóbánya 15.89 C barren zone Tardona 30 17.20 C Seam V Feketevölgy 15.90 C underlying beds Kurittyán 18.40 C There is minor decrease of temperature with time, both in the seams and in barren rock. Alsóvadász 1 borehole (867.8 1034.6 m) is the easternmost studied Ottnangian profile. Eight of eleven samples were suitable for temperature calculations. There is significant amount of tropical taxa. Total of subtropical and tropical elements is always higher than of temperate ones. Frequently forests of coal swamps dominate (Taxodiaexea, Myrica). There are less Sapotaceae and more Engelhardtia than in Borsod in the west. Sporomorph association is rather similar to Seam IV, esp. due to 19

the rich fern vegetation. No comparison can be made with Seam V due to its high coal rank. Maximum calculated temperature is 21.6 C, minimum 16.5 C, mean 17.98 C. There were a few profiles from Mátra and Nógrád region, poor in sporomorphs, unsuitable for numerical analysis. Two samples of Tököl 1 borehole (1108.0 1110.0 m and 973.3 982.5 m) contain Ottnangian sporomorphs. There are marine planktonic organisms, Pleurozonaria concinna, and Hystrichosphaera. The lower sample there are tropical sporomorhs, Sapotaceae, Engelhardtia, Cyrillaceaepollenites megaexactus and fern spores. A very rare form, Myrtaceidites myrtiformis occurs, described by SIMONCSICS (1964) from Katalin Shaft not far away. Mean temperature indicated by the lower sample is 17.6 C, of the upper sample 17.25 C, mean value is 17.4 C, similar to Ottnangian values gained from elsewhere. Probably there was little or no sedimentation in the Transdanubian Range during Ottnangian; Bántapuszta Formation is Karpatian (HÁMOR 1997). Várpalota 133 borehole (175.6 226.3 m) is considered Ottnangian by Kókay. There is no Mecsekisporites, which occurs in the Karpatian. Six of eight samples taken from this 50.7 m thick succession were suitable for numerical analysis. There are many interesting tropical taxa: Malvacearumpollis bakonyensis, Alangiopollis barghoornianum, Acaciapollenites varpalotaënsis, Magnoliaepollenites sp., Monocolpopollenites tranquillus and very much tropical fern. RAO (1995) established a Malvacearumpollis bakonyensis cenozone (Lower Miocene) from an abundant occurrence of this species. There are very few planktonic organisms in the lower samples. A sample from 214.2 217.6 m contains Botryococcus braunii KÜTZ. and Micrhystridium sp. In samples taken from 208.0 175.5 m interval there are Pleurozonaria concinna (COOKS. et MAN.) MÄDL. and Hystrichosphaeridae sp. planktonic organisms, characteristic for nearshore environments. There are even temperature values, never exceeding 18 C, caused by the presence pollen of subtropical and temperate conifers and marsh forests. Highest temperature value attained is 18 C, Figure 16. The temperature curve of Ottnangian section, borehole Várpalota 133 16. ábra. Az ottnangi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Várpalota 133 fúrás 20 lowest id 15.9, mean temperature is 16.9 C (Figure 16). Twenty of 26 samples taken from Tekeres 1 borehole (845.0 962.8 m)

Figure 17. The temperature curve of Ottnangian section, borehole Tekeres 1 17. ábra. Az ottnangi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Tekeres 1 fúrás (Szászvár Formation, Mecseknádasd Member) yielded a 19.4 C maximum for the lower part of the succession, and a 12.4 C minimum for the upper part (Figure 17). Mean is relatively low: 14.5 C (14.6 C between seams III and IV in Borsod). Tropical elements are unchanged (Podocarpus, Engelhardtia, Sapotaceae, Symplocos, Dodonaea, Cyrilla, Araliaceae, Magnolia, Ilex, Malvacearumpollis bakonyensis, pálmák, Cycas). There are less fern species, but more subtropical pollen (Taxodiaceae, Myrica), temperate conifers and species living in gallery forests (Carya, Alnus). These features are characteristic for Ottnangian coal swamps. A few Ottnangian samples were studied from Szászvár 8 borehole in Eastern Mecsek Hills (1 sample from 26.0 27.0 m, 7 samples from 432.5 438.7 m, s samples from 530.0 531.4 m; Szászvár Formation, Mánfa Member). Pollen spectrum is characterized by Lower Miocene (Ottnangian) tropical species (Cycas, Monocolpopollenites tranquillus, Malvacearumpollis bakonyensis). There are subtropical elements, too: Ginkgo, Cedrus, Sciadopitys, Zelkova, and temperate conifers. Taxa of swamp woodlands are present in high percentage; there are a few temperate species only (Carya, Ulmus). Maximal temperature was 23.7 C in the 26.0 27.0 m interval. This very high value is probably due to selective fossilization of fern spores (thick exosporia). Otherwise the highest calculated temperature is 18.7 C, the lowest one is 15.3 C, mean is 16.7 C. A few Spirogyra indicate freshwater. Pusztakisfalu VI is an Ottnangian profile in Eastern Mecsek. Six samples of 18 taken from the 5.2 51.8 m limnic, sandy, carbonaceous interval (Szászvár Formation, Mecseknádasd Member) yielded 21.4 C maximum, 14 C minimum, and 17.4 C mean temperature (Figure 18). Samples are dominated by spores of tropical ferns. The few tree belong to a swamp forest (Taxodiaceae). There are a few tropical pollen taxa: Engelhardtia, Cycas, Sapotaceae, Protea, Araliaceae, Magnolia, Ilex és Palmae. Subtropical elements are Ginkgo, Castanopsis, Zelkova, temperate are Coniferae, Pinus sylvestris-type, Picea, and few Salix, Castanea, Platycarya pollen. There was subtropical climate in this freshwater swamp. Three samples of 7 taken from 16.0 21.2 m interval of Zengővárkony 45 borehole (Szászvár Formation, Mecseknádasd Member). 22.2 C maximum, 18.2 C minimum 21

Figure 18. The temperature curve of Ottnangian section, borehole Várpalota 133 18. ábra. Az ottnangi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Várpalota 133 fúrás and 19.8 C mean temperatures were calculated. This association has few tropical elements, was dominated by swamp forest of subtropical, temperate taxa. Ottnangian sediments are moderately extensive in Hungary. Even less yielded wel-preserved sporomorphs. The ancient vegetation was variable, characteristic, therefore well-suited for palaeoclimatic analysis. Mean temperature was 16.7 C, while involving a variety of local climates. There was warm subtropical climate with two seasons: a warmer, humid and a cooler, arid season, similar to the climate of present-day swamp forests. Precipitation was in the range of 1000 1500 mm. Middle Miocene 22 Karpatian Karpatian was a markedly more marine stage in Hungary than Ottnangian, with marine direct connections mostly towards the southwest instead of the southeast (HÁMOR 1997, 2001). Several boreholes containing Karpatian sediments were studied in the Mecsek Hills. Two samples of fifteen taken from Zengővárkony 59 borehole (46.8 94.7 m; Budafa Formation, Komló Marl Member) were unsuitable for climatological interpretation. The lowermost one (92.0 94.7 m) is full of Botryococcus braunii, another (73.0 73.5 m) is rhyolite tuff. Almost all samples yielded 16 17 C mean annual temperature, with 21 C maximum and 14 C minimum values (Figure 19). This succession is characterized by sporomorphs embedded in freshwater sediments, recording a small swamp forest (Taxodiaceae, Myrica) or open forest (Salix, Alnus, Betula). A new fern genus, Mecsekisporites appears, an index fossil for Middle Miocene (NAGY 1992). New Bifacialisporites species, new Bryophyta (Anthocerataceae), Hepaticeae (Riccia) species indicate environmental change (NAGY 1968). Mosses are mostly subtropical, while liverworts prefer temperate climate, suggesting somewhat arid summer and wet winter. Aridity is indicated by Ephedra and Ilex as well. Cycadales and Zamiaceae

Figure 19. The temperature curve of Karpatian section, borehole Zengővárkony 59 19. ábra. Akárpáti rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Zengővárkony 59 fúrás Figure 20. The temperature curve of Karpatian section, borehole Komló 120 20. ábra. A kárpáti rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Komló 120 fúrás epidermis occurs in the uppermost sample, bearing stomata; probably Zamia, Macrozamia according to Prof. Greguss (NAGY 1969). WALTER (1968) mentions Macrozamia fraseri from the Mediterranean-like climate zone of SW Australia. These data collectively indicate lower temperature than in the Ottnangian and a Mediterranean character of climate, while still subtropical and tropical elements dominate the pollen spectra. Two samples from 13.2 14.5 m interval of Zengővárkony 45 borehole are Karpatian, supported by the presence of Bifacialisporites. One of the samples yielded a 16 C mean annual temperature. Eighteen of 23 samples from Komló 120 borehole (10.0 374.7 m; Budafa Formation, Mánfa and Komló Members) yielded maximum temperature was 18.4 C, minimum 12.5 C, mean 15 C. Relatively low temperatures were due to the locality being surrounded by mountains; pollen of mostly temperate mixed-coniferous forests dominate the spectra (Figure 20). Coniferae pollens mostly indicate temperate climate (Pinus sylvestris, Abiespollenites absolutus, Piceapollenites), vagy szubtrópusiak (Abietinaepollenites microalatus, Keteleeriaepollenites komloënsis, Cedripites sp.). Most samples contain freshwater plankton: Botryococcus braunii, Spirogyra, Pediastrum. There is marine plankton in 135.89 141.0 m interval: Hystrychokolpoma 23

Figure 21. The temperature curve of Karpatian section, borehole Hidas 53 21. ábra. A kárpáti rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Hidas 53 fúrás 24 poculum MEIER 1959 and an undeterminable Hystrichosphaeridae fragment. Five of seven samples yielded palaeoclimatological data from the Karpatian section of Hidas 53 borehole (763.3 1039.5 m; Budafa Formation, Komló Marl Member). Highest temperature was 18.8 C, lowest 14 C, mean 16.7 C (Figure 21). There are many Coniferae pollen with air sacs. There are spores of zonal index Bifacialisporites sp. and Phaeocerosporites sp., and typical spores of the Hungarian Middle Miocene: Cibotiides zonatus, Polypodiisporites histiopteroides. There are a few planktonic forms in the lowermost samples: Micrhystridium sp., Tythodiscus, and microforaminifera. Two samples were studied from 161.0 167.7 m of Várpalota 133 borehole (Garáb Schlier Formation). There are marine plankton organisms in the sample. The lower sample (166.0 167.0 m) contains the pioneer Hyppophaë: it lives on the seashore, and disappears with the growth of other plants, trees. There are many tropical forms: Podocarpus, Cyrilla, Sapotaceae, Acacia, Ilex, Meandripollis (Pacourina), páfrányok (Leiotriletes, Polypodiidites histiopteroides and the zónal index Mecsekisporites). Subtropical (Keteleeria, Cedrus, Taxodiaceae, Myrica) and temperate (Abies, Pinus, Tsuga, Ulmus, Carya, Pterocarya, Betula, Ericaceae, Caprifoliaceae) forms are subordinate. This locality probably surrounded by mountains suggests Mediterranean-like climate, somewhat warmer than in the Ottnangian (due to the lack of swamp forests). Mean temperature was 17.8 C. Study of Berhida 3 borehole succession has a special significance in the author s research. It is a link between the well-studied Mecsek and Northern Hungarian sedimentary basins. Sediments in the nearby Bakony region are very rich floristically. Karpatian sediments of Berhida 3 were described by KÓKAY et al. (1991). Thirty of 34 samples were suitable for palaeoclimatic interpretation (496.5 671.8 m; Garáb Schlier Formation, Budafa Formation). The succession represents mangrove vegetation from the lowermost sample throughout (NAGY and KÓKAY 1991). Nearshore marine depositional environment is indicated by Pleurozonaria concinna and microforaminifera. Often Botryococcus braunii and rare Spirogyra, Dinoflagellata were found. Temperature varies from 13.1 C to 22.7 C, with a mean of 18 C (Figure 22).

Sporomorphs of both Várpalota 133 and Berhida 3 indicate higher temperature than we found in the Mecsek. High number of tropical taxa, despite lack of several characteristic species of the Lower Miocene (Protea, Cicatricosisporites chattensis, etc.). There is a lot of mangrove forms, despite Avicennia, a typical mangrove-froming genus having very low pollen yield (BESSEDIK 1981, 1985). There are no or very restricted swamp forests only. Certain aridity indicators (Chenopodiaceae) yield lots of pollen; these forms are associated with other xerophylic elements (Dodonaea: Pentapollenites). Ratio of temperate conifers heavily influences temperature values: where it is high, calculated temperature is lower. The protected Várpalota Basin, surrounded by hills, received conifer pollen, except when removed by northern winds. Section 291.0 328.0 m of Fehérvárcsurgó 160 borehole is Karpatian, overlain by Badenian sediments. The four examined samples did not yield any taxa of zonal value. There Figure 22. The temperature curve of Karpatian section, borehole Berhida 3 22. ábra. A kárpáti rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Berhida 3 fúrás are a few freshwater Botryococcus, a single Tetraporina quadrata, a freswather planktonic form. The few tropical elements indicate Lower and Middle Miocene: Podocarpus, Pentapollenites, Symplocos, Tripcolporopollenites liblarensis, Ilexpollenites iliacus. Subtropical taxa are Abietinaepollenites microalatus, Cedrus, Taxodiaceae, Myrica, Zelkova, Olea, and Liquidambar. Temperate sporomorphs are frequent: Pinus sylvestris, Quercus, Fagus, Carpinus, Ulmus, Carya, Pterocarya, Acer. Maximum temperature was 14.38 C, minimum 13 C, mean 13.46 C. The section of Fót 1 borehole above 145.0 m depth is considered Karpatian by field geologists (Fót Formation). Two samples are palynologically barren: there a single Mecsekisporites zengővárkonyensis was found at 36.0 m, and a Ricciaesporites moss spore at 130.5 131.5 m. Both are zonal indices. Fifteen samples were suitable for interpretation between 115.0 139.0 m, with high number of tropical taxa, low in numbers. There are no palms and Ilex, and there are a few ferns only. Rarely there are temperate conifers. Planktonic organisms indicate nearshore environment. There are a lot of redeposited Mesozoic microorganisms. Hight temperature was 18.3 C, lowest 11.5 C, mean 16.18 C (Figure 23). 25

Figure 23. The temperature curve of Karpatian section, borehole Fót 1 23. ábra. A kárpáti rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Fót 1 fúrás Figure 24. The temperature curve of Karpatian section, borehole Püspökhatvan 4 24. ábra. A kárpáti rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Püspökhatvan 4 fúrás Ten marly samples of 16 examined from 124.4 176.0 m of Püspökhatvan 4 borehole (Garáb Schlier Formation) yielded very few pollen of tropical taxa: Podocarpus, Sapotaceae, Cyrilla, Tetracentron, Engelhardtia, Dodonaea pollen, subtropical Pinus haploxylon-type pollen, a P. omorica, P. taeda, Cedrus, Keteleeria, Taxodiaceae, and Rhus pollen. Pollen of temperate coniferous forests are standard participants of pollen spectra. Sometimes only the latter and nearshore planktonic organisms are represented in the spectrum. Highest temprature value is 14.8 C, lowest 11 C, mean 12.15 C (Figure 24). Fifteen of 38 samples from 213.0 290.0 m section of Nógrádszakál 1 borehole (Garáb Schlier: silty marl with tuffite layers) yielded palaeoclimatological results. Maximum value of the temperature curve is 21 C, minimum 12.5 C, mean 16.2 C (Figure 25). All samples contain nearshore planktonic organisms, and Triassic, Cretaceous, Palaeogene resedimented fossils. Contemporaneous sporomorphs suffered selective fossilisation. 117 samples were examined from Litke 17 borehole (37.6 265.0 m section; Garáb Schlier Formation). Lithology is micaceous siltstone, silty marl, calcareous marl, therefore samples contain very few sporomorphs of poor preservation. Less than hundred palynomorphs could be used for interpretation. Mecsekisporites and Bifacialisporites 26

Figure 25. The temperature curve of Karpatian section, borehole Nógrádszakál 1 25. ábra. A kárpáti rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Nógrádszakál 1 fúrás Figure 26. The temperature curve of Karpatian section, borehole Litke 17 26. ábra. A kárpáti rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Litke 17 fúrás zonal indices occur repeatedly in the succession, associated with nearshore planktonic organisms. There are no traces of seashore swamp. Ephedra and Ilex indicate arid climate in the lowermost samples. Highest temperature is 22 C, lowest 11.9 C, mean 15.9 C (Figure 26). Climate was subtropical with Sapotaceae, Dodonaea, Engelhardtia, Araliaceae, temperate with open forests of Salix, Carya, Betula, and mountain coniferous forests. Seventeen samples of Piliny 8 borehole were examined (Garáb Schlier Formation). All of them are barren down to 86.0 m. Despite schlier lithology like in Litke 17, sporomophs yielded good results. Mecsekisporites miocaenicus and Bifacialisporites sp., and Saxosporis gracilis moss spore zonal indices are present. Presence of Menandripollis velatus indicates connections to Várpalota and Berhida. Tropical elements are identical to those in western Hungary. Maximum temperature value is 22.2 C, minimum 13.5 C, mean 17.8 C (Figure 27). Szilvásvárad is the easternmost Karpatian profile in my study. Seven of 10 samples from 145.0 to 436.0 m (Garáb Schlier Formation) yielded sporomorphs suitable for interpretation. There are a few Bifacialisporites zonal indices. Most samples contain nearshore planktonic organisms and much redeposited Palaeozoic fossils. There are a few tropical elements (Podocarpus, Sapotaceae, Cyrilla, Tricolporopollenites fusus, Ilex, Araliaceoi- 27

Figure 27. The temperature curve of Karpatian section, borehole Piliny 8 27. ábra. A kárpáti rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Piliny 8 fúrás pollenites edmundi and ferns). Subtropical forms indicate Mediterranean (Zelkova, Olea) and East Asian (Ginkgo, Castanopsis, Sciadopitys) climate. There are temperate forms, too (Pinus, Picea, Betula, Carya, Pterocarya, Carpinus, Castanea). Arid climate is indicated by few Ephedra, Ilex, Araliaceae. Maximum temperature was 17.7 C, minimum 14.6 C, mean 16.6 C. Karpatian climate was equivocally subtropical with a mean annual temperature of 16 C. Ecology and climate dictates a threefold subdivision of Karpatian. In the southwest (Mecsek) there was a riverside environment rich in palms, similar to the Mediterranean. Relief-influenced climate had a relatively low-temperature, summerdry, winter-wet environment. Certain boreholes (Zengővárkony 45, 59) yielded freshwater plankton only, while others contain marine plankton as well. The second group of localities (Berhida 3) contains mangrove embedded with marine plankton, with relatively high mean temperature (17.9 C). The last group is in northern Hungary (Fót 1 borehole and eastwards) was relatively dry, with (Ephedra, Chenopodiaceae, Dodonaea, Ilex, less fern). These ones indicate a climate similar to the Eastern Medietrranean. 28 Badenian (Lower and Middle Badenian) Badenian marine connections were mostly to the southwest, like in the Karpatian (HÁMOR 1997, 2001). Lower Badenian sediments cover larger area than Karpatian (HÁMOR 1997, p. 241). Seven samples of 10 taken from the Lower Badenian section of Zengővárkony 59 borehole (24.8 46.8 m; Tekeres Schlier Formation) yielded the zonal index Mecsekisporites miocaenicus, a Bifacialisporites insularis, B. medius, a B. murensis, and B. oculus species. Lowermost samples contain freshwater plankton Botryococcus braunii, while the upper ones (34.0 37.5 m) marine Pleurozonaria concinna and Tythodiscus sp. Tropical elements are few Podocarpus, Sapotaceae, Symplocos, Araliaceae, Ilex, Engelhardtia, Palmae and large amount of fern spores. There are very few subtropical species only; there was no swamp forest. Most of subtropical pollen are

of Pinus haploxylon-type. Maximum temperature was 20 C, minimum 16.7 C. Mean was 16 C, identical with the Karpatian value (Figure 28). Four samples of 5 taken from Hidas 53 borehole (735.0 763.3 m; interfingering Pécsszabolcs and Baden Clay Formations) contain the zonal indes Mecsekisporites aequus and Bifacialisporites murensis minor. Hidas is considered a marine depositional environment by HÁMOR (1997), corroborated by the occurrence of marine plankton: Cystidiopsis certus, Hystrichosphaeridae, and microforaminifera (NAGY 1965, 1966, 1967). Tropical and subtropical elements exceed temperate ones in number. Tropical ones are Podocarpus, Sapotaceae, Araliaceae, and Engelhardtia. Lower part of the succession is dominated by tropical, Asian elements: Cedrus, Castanopsis, Zelkova, few fern spores and sporomorphs of a minor swamp forest. Temperate taxa are Coniferae, Acer, Carya, Platycarya, Ulmus, Alnus, Ericaceae. Chenopodiaceae and Artemisia pollen indicate aridity. Maximum temperature was 17.4 C, minimum 14 C, mean 16.1 C (Figure 29). Middle part of Hidas 53 borehole (590.2 713.0 m; Hidas Lignite Formation) is considered Middle Badenian. The succession below 699 m contains mostly marine plankton with less sporomorphs. Upwards there are lignite beds with freshwater algae (Botryococcus braunii). Sample 658.8 659.1 m contains the freshwater alga Tetraporina quadrata. Section from 630.8 to 659.1 m is dominated by pollen of a subtropical swamp Figure 28. The temperature curve of Lower Badenian section, borehole Zengővárkony 59 28. ábra. Az alsó-badeni rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Zengővárkony 59 fúrás Figure 29. The temperature curve of Lower Badenian section, borehole Hidas 53 29. ábra. Az alsó-badeni rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Hidas 53 fúrás 29

Figure 30. The temperature curve of Middle Badenian section, borehole Hidas 53 30. ábra. A középső-badeni rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Hidas 53 fúrás 30 forest. Besides subtropical conifers (Cedrus, Pinus haploxylon, Keteleeria, Sciadopitys) there are deciduous trees, too (Zelkova). Temperate taxa are Pinus sylvestris, Tsuga, Picea, Alnus, Carya, Pterocarya. Microforaminifers reappear at the top, indicatiing transgression. Maximum temperature was 20.9 C, minimum 13.6 C, mean 17.2 C (Figure 30). Several samples were studied from Hidas coal mine (NAGY 1957). Ádám Grósz offered 10 samples of 3 profiles from seams IV, V, and VI, and samples from boreholes Hidas 88: 248.0 333.3 m (12 samples), Hidas 89: 266.5 317.0 m (13 samples), Hidas 91: 284.0 325.2 m (15 samples), Hidas 105: 311.0 356.8 m (9 db), 59 samples in total for study. All samples displayed selective fossilization according to degree of coalification. Certain coal samples do not contain any sporomorphs, while others contain a few freshwater plankton only. Temperature interpretation is heavily burdened by this deficiency. Combined temperature values of Hidas mine seams II, IV, V, and VI is 15.23 C, lower than in the Borsod Ottnangian coal seams. As seams of both coalfields derive from Taxodiaceae-Myricaceae swamp, temperature differences can be explained by external factors only, as shown by reduction of tropical and subtropical elements and increase of temperate elements at Hidas. Deteriorating climate might be responsible for it. Tropical taxa are few Sapotaceae, Symplocos, Ilex, Engelhardtia, Palmae and very few ferns. Suptropical conifers and broadleaved trees are rare as well. Temperate conifers increase in percentage. Mean temperature values: Hidas 88 15.3 C Hidas 89 15.7 C Mean: 15.59 C Hidas 91 15.5 C Hidas 105 15.8 C Temperature curves are even, mostly below 18 C (Figures 31, 32). Tengelic 2 borehole is between Mecsek Hills and Transdanubian Range. A section between 680.8 and 863.6 m was studied. A sample from 861.8 963.6 m interval contains corroded sporomorphs, among others Botryococcus braunii and the zonal index Bifacialisporites sp. The Badenian section (723.1 853.3 m) belongs to Szilágy Marl

Figure 31. The temperature curve of Middle Badenian section, borehole Hidas 89 31. ábra. A középső-badeni rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Hidas 89 fúrás Figure 32. The temperature curve of Lower Badenian section, borehole Hidas 91 32. ábra. Az alsó-badeni rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Hidas 91 fúrás Formation (HALMAI et al. 1982); alternatively it represents the upper part of the stage only (HALMAI et al. 1982). Lower Badenian strata start with a regressive freshwater environment (823.4 851.3 m). Appearance of marine plankton indicates Early Badenian transgression between 845.0 847.0 m). Mecsekisporites sp. and Bifacialisporites medius zonal indices occur in Lower Badenian strata. There are very few tropical taxa (Podocarpus, Dacrydium, Sapotaceae, Engelhardtia, Araliaceae). Occasionally there are more fern spores than other palynomorphs. There are few tropical and Mediterranean elements only, while temperate conifers occur in greater abundance. Maximum temperature is 18 C, minimum 12.2 C, mean is 15.3 C, lower than in Mecsek Hills (Figure 33). Succession of Berhida 3 borehole is particularly well-studied, and radiometric data are available. Four samples of six taken from the Lower Badenian (472.0 491.0 m) section were studied. Three of them contain the zonal index Bifacialisporites szokolyaënsis. Botryococcus is an indicator of freshwater environment in the lowermost, terrestrial sample, while there is large amount of microforaminifera indicating marine environment above. Significant amount of Sapotaceae, Dodonaea, Engelhardtia and ferns of the undergrowth represent tropical elements. There is negligible amount of subtropical taxa, or these ones are missing. There was no swamp forest. Forests are temperate submountain forests and open forests. 31

Figure 33. The temperature curve of Lower Badenian section, borehole Tengelic 2 33. ábra. Az alsó-badeni rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Tengelic 2 fúrás Section 444.6 463.8 is Middle Badenian (Kókay J.). Two of four samples contain Botryococcus (neashore or terrestrial environment). The spectrum contains few tropical taxa, mostly ferns, less subtropical elements and several temperate species. Early Badenian temperature curve shows conspicuously high values: 22.3 C maximum, 17.6 C minimum, and 19.9 C mean temperature. Middle Badenian mean temperature is 18.3 C (two samples, Figure 34). These values are due to higher amount of tropical ferns and low number of total sporomorphs. Local climate certainly influenced temperature values: embayment open to the south, surrounded by mountains (as recognized by Kókay J.). Szokolya boreholes in the southern part of Börzsöny Mts contain Baden Clay Formation. Several of them were studied: the longest profile of Szokolya 2 borehole yielded the best preserved palynomorphs. Eighty-three samples of hundred and seven taken were suitable for palaeoclimatic interpretation. The 2.8 m to 28.8 m calcareous, sandy, and sandstone interval is almost barren of sporomorphs. Other samples contain much zonal index Bifacialisporites (badenensis, grandis, magnus, mecsekensis, murensis, szokolyaënsis) and Mecsekisporites (cerebralis, zengoevarkonyensis). Tropical elements are reduced. A few samples contain fern Figure 34. The temperature curve of Middle Badenian section, borehole Berhida 3 34. ábra. A középső-badeni rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Berhida 3 fúrás 32

spores only. There are few palms only. Temperature taxa increase, but there are few pollen, probably derived from faraway localities and submountain forests (Acer, Ulmus, Castanea). Coniferae (Pinus, Picea, Abies) derived from higher elevation forests. Local environment of this very variable and rich flora was similar to that of Berhida, occupying a similar, but more open terrain. The locality was protected by the mountains from the north, and there was a nearby sea in the south, moderating climate extremes, both providing for similar, rich vegetation. A subtropical, Mediterranean climate was characterized by wet winters and dry summers. Xerophylic plants (Ephedra, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia) include tropical elements as well (Dodonaea, Ilex). Temperature was not particularly variable: highest value is 22 C, lowest 12.45 C, mean 16.2 C (Figure 35). Twenty-five samples of 52 taken from Nógrádszakál 2 borehole (23.7 213.0 m; Nógrádszakál Formation) were subjected for palaeoclimatological interpretation. Andesitic volcanism precluded the interpretation of the rest. K/Ar age of andesites is 16.5±2.0 million years. The zonal index Bifacialisporites nogradensis occurs in most samples. There are relatively high amount of tropical taxa, mostly ferns, less subtropical elements. Temperate vegetation consisted of mountain conifers and broadleaved trees forming open woodland. In the upper part of the succession temperature never Figure 35. The temperature curve of Lower Badenian section, borehole Szokolya 2 35. ábra. Az alsó-badeni rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Szokolya 2 fúrás Figure 36. The temperature curve of Badenian section, borehole Nógrádszakál 2 36. ábra. Az alsó-badeni rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Nógrádszakál 2 fúrás 33

Figure 37. The temperature curve of Middle Badenian section, borehole Alsóvadász 1 37. ábra. A középső-badeni rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Alsóvadász 1 fúrás decreases below 18 C; there is more variability below. Maximum was 22 C, minimum 10.7 C, mean was 15.46 C (Figure 36). The easternmost borehole studied is Alsóvadász 1. Five samples were interpreted out of eight taken from the 723.6 875.2 m section. Only the uppermost sample contains at least hundred spormoprhs. There is marine plankton in the four topmost samples and swamp forest remains. There are no zonal indices. Tropical and subtropical elements are few, while Pinus sylvestris-type temperate pollen is rather abundant. There are single pollens of Tsuga, Abies, Picea, plus waterside deciiduous trees, and xeryophylic Chenopodiacea, Compositae pollen. Temperature curve is even: maximum value is 18 C, minimum 15 C, mean 16.3 C (Figure 37). Lower Badenian climate is only slightly different from Karpatian climate. Mean value calculated from all studied profiles of 16.2 C for the Early Badenian, while 16.2 C in the Karpatian. This is probably due to extensive Middle Badenian swamp forests. Tropical elements are somewhat reduced, although undergrowth ferns increase. Formation of high mountains in the Pannonian Basin due to orogenesis and volcanism increased the ratio of temperate vegetation. At the same time elevated mountains protected the vegetation against climatic extremities, and provided space for formation of new species. 34 Upper Badenian Upper Miocene Two samples were studied from Hidas 53 borehole (558.0 575.0 m; Szilágy Marl Formation) The lower flora resembles the Middle Badenian one (Taxodium swamp: Taxodiaceae, Nyssa, Cyrilla). The upper flora witnessed reduction of swamp environment, progress of mountain Coniferae (Pinus sylvestris, P. haploxylon-type) and appearance of foraminifers (after Ilona Korecz-Laky) indicates marine transgression. Temperature ranged from 15.9 18.2 C, with a mean value of 17 C.

Upper Badenian section of Tengelic 2 borehole is between 723.1 823.4 m. No subdivision into substages is available on lithological grounds. Lower and Upper Badenian can be recognized by molluscs BOHN-HAVAS (in: HALMAI et al. 1982). KORECZ-LAKY (1982) recognized a Karpatian to Lower Pannonian succession based on foraminifers: Karpatian Tar Dacite Tuff Formation, Lower Badenian marl, Upper Badenian Szilágy Marl Formation, Lower Sarmatian Kozárd Formation. Further subdivision has been attained by foraminifer associations (KORECZ-LAKY 1982, p. 152, fig. 1). She recognized that the open shallow sea was warm and of normal salinity. Rare cool-water influence is indicated by agglutinated forms. Nannoplankton studies of NAGYMAROSI (1982) support the subdivision of the Badenian. Palynoflora contains a rich, open marine plankton, opposed to the nearshore plankton of other profiles of similar age. Terrestrial zonal indices Mecsekisporites and Bifacialisporites representing mostly Middle Miocene were found in the Upper Miocene of Tengelic 2 borehole. Terrestrial flora in Tengelic 2 borehole was extremely rich, suitable for palaeoclimatological interpretation. Twenty-five of 29 samples of Upper Badenian section of Tengelic 2 borehole (723.1 823.4 m) are suitable for palaeoclimatological interpretation. There is a significant amount of tropical taxa, although poorer than that of Berhida 3 borehole, esp. in respect of undergrowth ferns. Only a few subtropical pollen occurs; there was no swamp forest. Temperate taxa abound, due to increased percentage of mountain conifers. Reduced temperature values are due to this effect, characteristic for the Late Badenian. Temperature curve is even, maximum value is 16.6 C, minimum is 10.8 C, mean 13.5 C (Figure 38). Differences between Lower and Upper Badenian can be recognized in the higher percentage of nearshore plankton (Pleurozonaria concinna, Botryococcus braunii) in the Upper Badenian. Upper Badenian section of Berhida 3 borehole overlies the Middle Badenian terrestrial complex due to tectonic subsidence (KÓKAY et al. 1991), corroborated by microforaminifers. Upper Badenian starts with coal measures (434.6 442.6 m), overlain by alginite and 6.7 m thick dacite tuffite bed (14.3 Ma K/Ar age, Ravasz-Baranyai and Balogh). A pelitic succession follows up to 386.7 m, sand up to 372.3 m, clay and silt up to 361 m. Sixty Upper Badenian samples were Figure 38. The temperature curve of Upper Badenian section, borehole Tengelic 2 38. ábra. A felső-badeni rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Tengelic 2 fúrás 35

Figure 39. The temperature curve of Upper Badenian section, borehole Berhida 3 39. ábra. A felső-badeni rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Berhida 3 fúrás studied, thirteen of them were barren. Most samples contain nearshore plankton organisms (Pleurozonaria concinna and Botryococcus braunii). There are Botryococcus and Spirogyra above the coal bed. Rare Hystrichosphaeridae (424 m), Pleurozonaria (395.2 m) indicate marine influx, and Avicennia pollen suggests mangrove (403.5 m, 399.0 m, 395.0 m). Tropical elements are significantly increased, together with zonal indices Mecsekisporites and Bifacialisporites. Subtropical elements occur in greater abundance, too. Still, pollen of temperate Coniferae and broadleaved trees, waterside trees (Carya, Salix) indicate decrease of temperature. The curve increses above 18 C several times; maximum value is 21.5 C, minimum 11.8 C, mean 15.6 C (Figure 39). Temperature is higher than at Tengelic, possibly due to the locally protected environment. The three borehole profiles suggest 15.37 C annual mean temperature for the Late Badenian, fitting the global trends. Climate changes are due to orographic changes related to the formation of the Pannonian Basin, as defined by local climates. Climate is always subtropical, despite easily adapting plants otherwise characterizing temperate zone. Tropical and subtropical plants easily adapt themselves to local climates. Extensive seas attenuated climatic extremes. Changing marine currents added new floral elements to taphocoenoses, but did not change biotopes significantly. Upper part of the Berhida profile attests to the appearance of xerophylic plants (Chenopodiaceae, Ephedra). 36 Sarmatian Sarmatian seas were extensive but of minor depth and low salinity in Hungary (HÁMOR 2001). Transgression arrived from the SE (HÁMOR 1997), corroborated by palyonological data (Manikinipollis = Periploca appeared in the Sarmatian), and immigration of eastern diatom species (HAJÓS M., pers. comm.). Many Sarmatian samples were examined for sporomorphs but few of them are suitable to preserve them. Nine of 11 samples from Hidas 53 borehole (417.0 554.3 m) at the NE margin of Mecsek Hills are suitable for palaeoclimatological interpretation. Zonal index

Tsugapollenites helenensis occurs in two samples. There is few planbkton, except a few Hystrichosphaeridae and Thalassipora. Tropical taxa are few, there is barely any fern. Subtropical forms are related to East Asia: Ginkgo, Keteleeria, Sciadopitys, Chamaecyparis (Japan and China). Zelkovaepollenites is not related to the Mediterranean (Z. potonié) but to the Caucasus (Z. thiergarti). Temperature decreases upwards, shown by increase of warm temperate Fagaceae pollen. Increased aridity (upwards from 537 m) is indicated by frequent appearance of Chenopodiacea and Ephedra, and abundance of all three species of Ilex. Temperature curves reached 18 C only once (highest value), minimum value is 12.9 C, mean 14.9 C (Figure 40). Dry summers, less winter precipiation, warm temperate, Middle Eastern climate is suggested. Only the lowermost sample is suitable for interpretation among the nine taken from Tengelic 2 borehole (680.8 723.1 m), a microbedded siltstone. Tropical elements are Podocarpus, Symplocos, Araliaceae, Ilex and Ephedra, indicating aridity. Subtropical elements are Keteleeria, Cedrus, Zelkova, and Rhus, displaying eastern connections. Closeness of the sea contributed to its 13.7 C annual mean temperature (Figure 41). Two of nine samples taken from Sarmatian of Berhida 3 borehole (223.5 361.2 m) are suitable for palaeoclimatological interpretation. Annual mean temperature was Figure 40. The temperature curve of Sarmatian section, borehole Hidas 53 40. ábra. A szarmata rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Hidas 53 fúrás Figure 41. The temperature curve of Sarmatian section, borehole Tengelic 2 41. ábra. A szarmata rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Tengelic 2 fúrás 37

13 C (barely supported by the very few sporomorphs). This section contains the Sarmatian Pannonian boundary, marked by a 5 cm biotitic dacite tuff bed at 222.6 m depth, of 12.6±0.5 Ma (RAVASZ-BARANYAI and BALOGH in: KÓKAY et al. 1991). Two of four samples from Lajoskomárom 1 borehole (671.0 715.5 m section; Kozárd Formation) is suitable for palaeoclimatological interpretation. There are very few tropical taxa (Podocarpus, Symplocos, Engelhardtia), few East Asian subtropical taxa (Ginkgo, Sciadopitys, Zelkova, Castanopsis), and subtropical-temperate conifer and mixed forest sporomorphs. Mean annual temperature is 13.4 C. Vajta borehole (724.0 728.0 m) yielded a singe sample with very well-preserved Sarmatian pollen. An interesting species is Manikinipollis tetradoides, described by W. Krutzsch from the material of the late Manikin, White Russian palynologist. This species represents the genus Periploca, occurring solely in Sarmatian sediments in Hungary. Vajta had a particularly favourable local climate, since there are tropical taxa Podocarpus, Engelhardtia, Symplocos, Palmae, thermophylic ferns besides Periploca. Mean annual temperature was relatively high, 14.7 C. There is a rich variety of subtropical (Ginkgo, Pinus haploxylon-type, Oleaceae, Liquidambar, Myrica), and increased ratio of temperate conifers (Pinus sylvestris, Abies, Picea) and broadleaves (Fagaceae, Salix, Platycarya, etc.). Borehole Cserhátszentiván 1 contains an almost full profile of the Sarmatian (HÁMOR 1985), yielding the highest quality results. Forty samples of 85 taken from 6.0 200.0 m profile (interfingering Kozárd and Sajóvölgy Fomations) were used for interpretation. The zonal index Tsugaepollenites helenensis appears several times, while Manikinipollis only once. There are few tree-size tropical taxa. Subtropical vegetation indicates connections towards the east and southeast (Ginkgo, Sciadopitys, Cedrus, Keteleeria, Liquidambar, Zelkova, Olea, Castanea). There is a lot of temperate broadleaved tree (Fagaceae, Ulmus, Celtis, Acer). Xerophylic elements occur frequrently (Ephedra treplinensis, Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Amarathaceae, Ilex). The temperature curve is particularly flat, rising above 15 C only twice. Highest value is 15.8 C, Figure 42. The temperature curve of Sarmatian section, borehole Cserhátszentiván 1 42. ábra. A szarmata rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Cserhátszentiván 1 fúrás 38 lowest 10.9 C, mean 13.85 C (Figure 42). The climate was of Eastern Mediterranean character, with short winter rainy season and warm, dry summers.

Figure 43. The temperature curve of Sarmatian section, borehole Tar 34 43. ábra. A szarmata rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Tar 34 fúrás Figure 44. The temperature curve of Sarmatian section, borehole Alsótold 1 44. ábra. A szarmata rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Alsótold 1 fúrás Ten samples were interpreted among 78 taken from Tar 34 borehole (210.0 638.0 m; interfingering Sajóvölgy and Kozárd Formation) There are few warm-climate spores, few Engelhardtia, Podocarpus, and Araliaceae. Subtropical elements are near eastern Zelkova and east Asian Ginkgo and Sciadopitys. These yielded 13.9 C mean temperature, fitting the Sarmatian climate well (Figure 43). Nine samples out of 87 taken from Alsótold 1 borehole (59.2 165.5 m; interfingering Sajóvölgy and Tinnye Formations) in Borsod Basin (HÁMOR 1985, p. 156) are suitable for interpretation only. The rest is made of limestone and sandstone. There are barely any tropical elements, few subtropical (Zelkova, Myrica, Nyssa, Taxodiaceae, Pinus haploxylon-type, Cedrus, Keteleeria), while increased ratio of temperate conifers and broadleaves. There is few plankton: 1 2 Pleurozonaria and Spirogyra. The temperature curve is particularly flat (Figure 44). Highest value is 15.3 C, lowest 12 C, mean 12.86 C Alsóvadász 1 borehole in Cserehát (280.6 709.6 m) yielded 19 samples, nine of which were suitable for climatological interpretation. All belong to Kozárd Formation. There are a few tropical fern spores, few pollen of Sapotaceae bushes, Symplocos, Engelhardtia, subtropical Cedrus, Pinus haploxylon and Taxodiaceae, Myrica, Zelkova. Temperate Coniferae, broadleaves and herbs are contained in the spectra. 39

Xerophylic taxa abound (Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Compositae). Plankton indicates nearshore environment (Pleurozonaria concinna, Spirogyra sp.). Temperature curves reaches values above 18 C only once; maximum value is 18.8 C, minimum 10.5 C, mean 14.2 C (Figure 45). Fourteen samples out of 22 taken from Lak 1 borehole (219.2 419.0 m) were interpreted for palaeoclimatology. There are few tropical elements, sometimes only 1-2 tropical ferns. There are a few mountain thermophylic taxa (Podocarpus, Engelhardtia, Reevesia), and Palmae and Sapotaceae bushes. Part of subtropical taxa also indicated mountain environment (Pinus haploxylon, Cedrus), and related to the Far East (Ginkgo, Sciadopitys, Liquidambar, Castanopsis, Platycarya). Taxodiaceae, Myrica, Nyssa indicate swamp forest. These are associated with much temperate, mixed forest taxa, increasingly dominating the spectra. There are xerophylic Chenopodiaceae, Ephedra, and freshwater Myriophyllum and Trapa. There are both saltwater Thalassiphora and especially in the higher samples freshwater Spirogyra. Maximum value of the temperature curve is 16.5 C, minimum 12.6 C, mean 14.3 C (Figure 46). The climatic change started in Late Badenian comes to completion during Sarmatian. As only three localities were available from the Upper Badenian and only within the Transdanubian Range Sarmatian sediments, being significantly larg- Figure 45. The temperature curve of Sarmatian section, borehole Alsóvadász 1 45. ábra. A szarmata rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Alsóvadász 1 fúrás Figure 46. The temperature curve of Sarmatian section, borehole Lak 1 46. ábra. A szarmata rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Lak 1 fúrás 40

er in extension, offer considerably more possibility for palaeoclimatological interpretation. However, lithology of Sarmatian sediments often limestone and sandstone made much of the samples unfit for palaeoclimatological interpretation. Most of the tropical vegetation disappeared during the Sarmatian. Local environmental conditions made possible the survival of some taxa, and adaptation of plants to environmental change. Trees turned shrubs, and decreased in number. Neogene sporomoprh spectra never contain much tropical spore or pollen species. Retreat of tropical elements is a major feature of the Sarmatian. Subtropical elements display connections towards the Near East and Far East. Marginal to the subtropical belt there is a transitional zone to the warm temperate climate belt, displaying dry, hot summers and rainy winters. Mean temperature was 14 C, with less precipitation (700 800 mm), uneven distribution of precipitation. The large surrounding brackish water seas brought local precipitation. Pannonian (sensu PAPP 1985) Pannonian sea was somewhat more extensive than the Sarmatian (HÁMOR et al. 1988), having even lower salinity. Transgression is from the southeast (HÁMOR 2001). Two of three samples taken from Hidas 53 borehole (258.1 367.0 m) was suitable for palaeoclimatological interpretation. All three contains xerophylic Ilex pollen, besides 1 2 tropical taxa. Subtropical elements have mostly eastern relationships as (Keteleeria, Cedrus, Pinus taeda, Liquidambar, Castanopsis, Zelkova). Temperate conifers dominate the spectra, and there are broadleaved trees as well (Quercus, Tilia, Ulmus, Betula, Alnus, Juglans, Pterocarya, Carya). There are some freshwater and marine plankton, too. Mean annual temperature was 13.5 C, barely discernible from that of the Sarmatian. Eight of 18 samples taken from Pápa 2 borehole (118.0 189.0 m) permitted to outline palaeoclimatology. Besides one Podocarpus tropical elements are restricted to a few fern spores. Subtropical taxa indicate eastern relationships. Besides the ubiquitous Pinus haploxylon pollen Keteleeria, Sciadopitys, Liquidambar, and Zelkova corroborate this. Temperaste Coniferae dominate Figure 47. The temperature curve of Pannonian section, borehole Pápa 2 47. ábra. A pannóniai rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Pápa 2 fúrás 41

the spectra: besides the dominant Pinus sylvestris. There are Picea, Abies, and Tsuga pollens. Besides broadleaved trees and shrubs (Ericaceae) there are freshwater taxa: Myriophyllum, Nymphaeaceae) and other herbs. The few plankton are mostly freshwater organisms (Botryococcus, Spirogyra, Cooksonella). Temperature curve is particularly flat, maximum is 13.6 C, lowest 10.7 C, mean 12.2. C (Figure 47), somewhat cooler than that of Hidas in the south. All samples except one of 37 taken from Nagylózs 1 borehole (876.0 1025.4 m). Palynomorphs are poorly preserved and corroded, but the large number of fossils made interpretation possible. There is a lot of brackish water planktonic organism (Spiniferites bentori principal zone and Spiniferites paradoxus zone of FUCHS and SÜTŐ-SZENTAI 1991), while freshwater plankton occurs in almost all samples sometimes exclusively, indicating fluvial or lacustrine environment (Myriophyllum, Sparganium, Trapa, Nymphaeaceae, Stratiotes). Tropical taxa are few and far between: these are those taxa which live both in subtropical and in tropical mountain environments (Podocarpus, Sapotaceae, Engelhardtia, Araliaceae), and some ferns. Subtropical elements although negligible indicate eastern relationships. Upwards decreasing subtropical taxa are progressively substituted by temperate ones, especially Coniferae. There are a large number of broadleaved pollen, esp. Alnus. Shrubs (Sambucus, Corylus, Ericaceae, Rubus, Hypophaë, Diervilla), and herbs (Graminea, Urtica, Umbelliferae, Compositae, Caryophyllaceae) appear. Ferns adapt themselves particularly well to changing climate, not only in size but in mode of life as well: live on branches, creep on shrubs, e.g. Lygodium. Their fossil counterparts are significant. Spores are easily fossilized, and express local climate particularly well. Andreánszky included ferns in climatological interpretation (ANDREÁNSZKY 1955). Nagylózs 1 borehole resembles environments on the Spanish west coast, where the Atlantic ocean brings in a long, wet season. The Mediterranean attenuates climatic extremes along the east coast. Winds arriving from the mountains in the backgrounds were possibly similar to the climatic environment at Nagylózs, lying between the Alps to the west and Lake Figure 48. The temperature curve of Pannonian section, borehole Nagylózs 1 48. ábra. A pannóniai rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Nagylózs 1 fúrás 42 Pannon to the east. Sediments of Lake Pannon did not help fossilization particularly. Temperature curve does not display extremes despite

selective fossilization. Highest value is 15 C, lowest 10.2 C, mean annual temperature 12.95 C (Figure 48). Twenty-three of 66 samples taken from Berhida 3 borehole (153.8 222.6 m) were suitable for palaeoclimatological interpretation. All samples belong to Spiniferites bentori principal zone (FUCHS and SÜTŐ-SZENTAI 1991). Besides brackish water plankton there are freshwater taxa, too. Higher freshwater taxa are present. Tropical taxa are negligible, either lacking or are represented by a few fern spores, or a few Podocarpus, Engelhardtia or palm pollen. Subtropical elements indicate relationships to the east, both for conifers (Keteleeria, Pinus taeda, Sciadopitys, Cedrus, Cunninghamia) and for broadleaved trees (Liquidambar, Olea, Helianthemum, Castanopsis). Temperate conifers increase in number besides temperate broadleaved trees and shrubs. The temperature curve is even. Maximum is 13.8 C, minimum 10.3 C, mean annual temperature is 11.96 C (Figure 49). Several shallow boreholes with Pannonian strata were studied north of Bakony Hills. Lower samples of Tata TVG 27 (= Tt 12) borehole are Upper Egerian (see above) overlain by Pannonian sediments (8.5 32.1 m). Three samples of the latter yielded Lower Pannonian dinoflagellates and freshwater plankton (Tetraporina, Botryococcus). Tropical elements are one or two fern spores. Subtropical elements Figure 49. The temperature curve of Pannonian section, borehole Berhida 3 49. ábra. A pannóniai rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Berhida 3 fúrás Figure 50. The temperature curve of Pannonian section, borehole Tata TVG 26 50. ábra. A pannóniai rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Tata TVG 26 fúrás 43

indicate eastern connections (Ginkgo, Keteleeria, Cedrus, Zelkova). Dominant are temperate conifers (Pinus, Picea) and temperate broadleaved trees (Tilia, Ulmus, Carpinus, Castanea, Betula, Alnus, Corylus, Quercus, Fagus, Pterocarya, Carya, Ericaceae), freshwater plants (Nymphaeaceae, Sparganium, Typha), a few herbs (Chenopodiaceae, Graminea). Average temperature from the three samples is 12.5 C. Eleven samples of Tata TVG 26 (= Tt 11) borehole (7.0 39.0 m) contain somewhat more plankton than other Tata boreholes. Tropical and subtropical taxa are somewhat more abundant, too (Podocarpus is to be noted). Temperate taxa are similar in number than of the borehole discussed above. Maximum value of the temperature curve is 14.18 C, minimum 11.56 C, mean 13.37 C (Figure 50). Nine samples one lacking sporomorphs were intepreted from Tata 26 (Tt 14) borehole. There are very few tropical and subtropical elements. Temperate pollen always exceeds tropical and subtropical in number. Maximum of temperature curve is 14.2 C, minimum 11.2 C, mean 12.2 C (Figure 51). Four of seven samples taken from Naszály 1 borehole (12.0 150.0 m) were suitable for palaeoclimatological interpretation. Planktonic organisms are freshwater dinoflagellates and freshwater plankton. Sporomorphs display the same groups and percent- Figure 51. The temperature curve of Pannonian section, borehole Tata 26 51. ábra. A pannóniai rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Tata 26 fúrás Figure 52. The temperature curve of Pannonian section, borehole Tököl 1 52. ábra. A pannóniai rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Tököl 1 fúrás 44

ages than in the Tata boreholes. Temperature curve is similar, too, having 14.5 C maximum, 11 C minimum, and 12.8 C mean. Six of eight samples taken from Tököl 1 borehole (688.5 747.2 m) are suitable for palaeoclimatological interpretation. There are very few tropical elements, Subtropical ones indicate eastern origins. Temperate taxa increase, but have few individuals, except certain Coniferae. Besides dinoflagellates there are freshwater planktonic taxa: Botryococcus braunii, Spirogyra. Maximum value of temperature curve is 14 C, minimum 10.8 C, mean 12.8 C (Figure 52). Twenty-five of 33 samples taken from Lak 1 borehole (44.5 210.0 m) were suitable for palaeoclimatological interpretation. Samples are relatively rich in sporomorphs. Plankton indicates nearhsore environment, both marine and freshwater. Tropical taxa are abundant, esp. those wich can survive in the subtropics (Sapotacea) or live in tropical mountain environments (Engelhardtia, Figure 53. The temperature curve of Pannonian section, borehole Lak 1 53. ábra. A pannóniai rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Lak 1 fúrás Reevesia). Subtropical taxa have eastern relationships (Ginkgo, Sciadopitys, Liquidambar, Zelkova). Conifers withour air sacs indicate swamp forests, completed by Alnus swamps. Maximum value of the temperature curve is 16.4 C, minimum 11.1 C, mean 14.2 C, identical with the Sarmatian mean of the same borehole (Figure 53). Four of seven samples were interpreted from Alsóvadász 1 borehole (94.4 240.0 m). A few dinoflagellates indicate marine, while Trapa and Nymphaeaceae pollen indicate freshwater environment. There are few tropical elements, subtropical taxa indicate eastern connections (Ginkgo, Cedrus, Keteleeria, Liquidambar, Zelkova), corroborated by tropical Alangium and temperate Pterocarya, too. Maximum of temperature curve is 15.3 C, minimum 12.4 C, mean 13.5 C (Figure 54). Eight samples out of eleven taken from Megyaszó 1 borehole (50.0 206.0 m) is Pannonian (SZÉLES pers. comm.). Planktonic organisms are freshwater ones, with a few freshwater pollens added. There are few tropical taxa in two samples (Podocarpus, Reevesia, palm, Symplocos). Subtropical elements diplay eastern origin. Maximum of temperature curve is 16.2 C, minimum 11.1 C, mean 13 C (Figure 55). Pannonian climate data deviate very little from Sarmatian ones. Temperature values are a bit lower, due to larger extent of Pannonian water bodies, due to global decrease 45

Figure 54. The temperature curve of Pannonian section, borehole Alsóvadász 1 54. ábra. A pannóniai rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Alsóvadász 1 fúrás Figure 55. The temperature curve of Pannonian section, borehole Megyaszó 1 55. ábra. A pannóniai rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Megyaszó 1 fúrás of temperature. Pannonian climate was warm temperate, subtropical climate (12.83 C mean annual temperature), locally offering particularly favourable conditions for vegetaion (Nagylózs, Lak). 46 Pontian (sensu STEVANOVIĆ 1990) The Late Miocene has seen major changes in the tectonic environment of the Pannonian Basin. Changes in subsidence and uplift rates yielded a large amount of clastic sediments to be accumulated in the basin, gradually infilling it. Fluvial sediments enclosed extensive marshes, producing esp. Bükkalja and Torony Lignite (HÁMOR 2001). Palynological research of the author started in the Bükkalja Lignite (NAGY 1957, 1958) and finished with Torony Lignite (DRAXLER et al. 1996). Seven samples were taken from Hidas 53 borehole (73.3 148.5 m). Plankton is represented by dinoflagellates, Botryococcus, and Spirogyra. There are different higher freshwater plants in certain samples. There are almost no tropical elements, one or two Podocarpus, Engelhardtia, Ilex and few spores. Subtropical material is rich, esp. East Asian elements (Ginkgo, Sciadopitys, Cedrus, Keteleeria, Pinus taeda, Liquidambar, Zelkova). There is large number of temperate taxa, although small in number, except Pinus

sylvestris and swamp forest taxa. Maximum of temperature curve is 15.1 C, minimum 13.2 C, mean 13.86 C (Figure 56). Torony 71 borehole is in the westernmost part of the Pannonian Basin. Twentyseven of 37 samples taken from the interval of 31.0 157.0 m (Torony Lignite Formation) contained besides very few dinoflagellates freshwater plankton (Spirogyra, Mougeotia, Cooksonella, Botryococcus) and other freshwater plants (Myriophyllum, Trapa, Potamogeton, Sparganium, Stratiotes, Nymphaeaceae, Cyperaceae). There are few tropical taxa, and those lived on tropical mountains (Engelhardtia, Reevesia, palms). Subtropical elements are related to east Asia and the Mediterranean (Keteleeria, Sciadopitys, Cathaya, Cedrus, Picea omorica). forming swamp forests. Temperate ones belong to mountain Coniferae, and to mixed forests surrounding swamps. Even temperature reached its maximum at 15 C, minimum at 10.3 C, mean at 12.1 C (Figure 57). Sixteen of 43 samples taken from Nagylózs 1 borehole (373.2 853.2 m) were suitable for palaeoclimatological interpretation. Sporomorphs are very poorly preserved. Plankton is mostly freshwater, except a few dinoflagellates. Tropical taxa are relatively abundant. There are Reevesia, Araliaceae, and small Leiotriletes in the lower part of the succession (Újfalu Sandstone Formation), followed by Sapotaceae, Symplocos, Ilex, Figure 56. The temperature curve of Pontian section, borehole Hidas 53 56. ábra. A pontusi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Hidas 53 fúrás Figure 57. The temperature curve of Pontian section, borehole Torony 71 57. ábra. A pontusi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Torony 71 fúrás 47

Engelhardtia, and spores upwards. Eastern origins are indicated by subtropical Sciadopytis, Liquidambar, Castanopsis, Zelkova and the temperate Pterocarya. Temperate Coniferae and Alnus of swamp forests abound. Temperature curve is even, values decreasing upwards. Maximum value is 14.3 C, minimum 10.4 C, mean 12.3 C (Figure 58). Twenty-nine of 36 samples from Naszály 1 borehole (8.0 116.3 m) were evaluated. Besides much freshwater plankton (Spirogyra, Cooksonella, Botryococcus) there are few dinoflagellates, together with many redeposited sporomorphs. There are only a few tropical elements, decreasing upwards (Podocarpus, one Sapotaceae, Symplocos, and Palmae each). Subtropical taxa indicate partly east Asian (Ginkgo, Keteleeria, Sciadopitys, Liquidambar, Lonicera), partly near Eastern, Mediterranean relationships (Ginkgo, Keteleeria, Sciadopitys, Liquidambar, Lonicera). Certain samples are dominated by temperate Coniferae open forest taxa. Herbs, water plants, shrubs and undergrowth can be found, too. Temperature curve is particularly flat, maximum value is 13.8 C, minimum 10.5 C, mean 12.17 C, somewhat lower than calculated for the Pannonian (Figure 59). Forty-eight of 143 samples taken from Berhida 3 borehole (12.5 153.1 m) were evaluated. There are few dinoflagellates (Spiniferites sp. Tectatodinium, etc.), and large amount of freshwater plankton (SÜTŐ-SZENTAI in: KÓKAY et al. 1991). Kókay suggest- Figure 58. The temperature curve of Pontian section, borehole Nagylózs 1 58. ábra. A pontusi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Nagylózs 1 fúrás Figure 59. The temperature curve of Pontian section, borehole Naszály 1 59. ábra. A pontusi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Naszály 1 fúrás 48

ed that there was a lagoon here, where freshwater inflow created an almost lacustrine environment. There are many tropical taxa (Podocarpus, Sapotaceae, Reevesia, Symplocos, Magnolia, Araliaceae, Ilex, Melia, and ferns), while the number of their already few spores decrease upwards. Subtropical elements are more abundant than tropical ones, but still less than temperate ones. Relationships indicate Far Eastern and Mediterranean origin. Temperate taxa forming either open forest or a mountain forest are always dominant. Temperateure curve is particularly flat (Figure 60). Maximum value is 13.5 C, minimum 10 C, mean is 11.45 C. Several former brickyard profiles at Budapest, Kőbánya have been studied. The one at Jászberényi út exposed Lower and Middle Pontian strata. Ten samples from the lower and six from the upper were studied. The latter one being sandy, only one sample yielded material suitable for interpretation. There were few planktonic organisms, partly brackish, partly freshwater. The Lower Pontian section yielded a few tropical sporomorphs, those ones which today live under subtropical climate or on tropical mountainous areas (Podocarpus, Reevesia, Sapotaceae). There are few subtropical taxa indicating eastern (Ginkgo, Keteleeria, Liquidambar) or Mediterranean connections (Pinus taeda, Cedrus, Hedera, Zelkova). All samples contain xerophylic taxa (Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia, Compositae, Ephedra). Temperate elements dominate the spectra (Coniferae, broadleaves). Figure 60. The temperature curve of Pontian section, borehole Berhida 3 60. ábra. A pontusi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Berhida 3 fúrás Figure 61. The temperature curve of Pontian section, Jászberényi út, Kőbánya, Budapest 61. ábra. A pontusi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Kőbánya, Jászberényi út 49

Temperature curve is flat (Figure 61), with maximum at 14.3 C, minimum at 11.5 C, and mean at 13.19 C. The Maglódi út profile exposed only the Middle Pontian strata. Three samples yielded identical temperature values as the previous profile. Petőfi Mine at Mátra Mts (locality III) has been collected in great detail: the author sampled the coal every 10 cm between 0.0 to 1.90 m (Bükkalja Lignite Formation) (NAGY 1958). This locality yielded the most sporomorphs. Plankton is solely freshwater. Tropical/subtropical taxa are represented solely by one Engelhardtia pollen. Taxodiaceae of the coal swamp dominate the spectra. Temperate conifers and broadleaved taxa gained territory when the swamp forest retreated. Vegetation is of eastern origin (Ginkgo, Sciadopitys, Cedrus, Liquidambar, Zelkova, Pterocarya). Maximum value of the temperature curve is at 16.6 C when the swamp forest was most extensive, minimum at 10.3 C, when the swamp forest retreated, mean value is 13.9 C (Figure 62). Megyaszó 1 borehole is in NE Hungary, in Szerencs Hills. The upper section is Pontian according to the ostracod studies of Széles. Seven samples were taken from 17.0 44.5 m section of the profile; one was barren. Few plankton is freshwater (Spirogyra). Tropical elements are represented by one or two Podocarpus. Subtropical Figure 62. The temperature curve of Pontian section, locality III, Petőfi Mine, Mátra Mts 62. ábra. A pontusi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Petőfibánya III. altáró Figure 63. The temperature curve of Pontian section, borehole Megyaszó 1 63. ábra. A pontusi rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Megyaszó 1 fúrás 50

taxa indicate eastern connections (Ginkgo, Keteleeria, Cedrus, Chamaecyparis, Liquidambar, Hedera, Celtis, Zelkova). There are many temperate Coniferae and openforest broadleaves in the spectra. Highest value of the temperature curve is at 15.6 C, lowest at 11.9 C, mean is at 13.75 C (Figure 65). Mean temperature of the Pontian is identical with that of the Pannonian (12.84 C). There was subtropical to warm temperate climate. The extensive Lake Pannon attenuated climatic oscillations. Tropical vegetation disappeared due to insufficient temperature. Subtropical Taxodiaceae swamps are extensive, associated with Alnus forests, including subtropical and Mediterranean elements. Increase of temperate elements is partly due to the uplift of surrounding mountains covered by mixed forests and mountain conifer forests. Pontian climate is a warm temperate. Mediterranean climate is associated with the Pannonian. Differences are mostly due to changes in relief (increase of the water body and mountain uplift). These regional changes amplified the global cooling of climate. Pliocene Pliocene profiles have been studied in the 1970s, during the alginite exploration programme of the Hungarian Geological Institute. Palynomoprhs were analysed from the following boreholes. Bakony (56 samples): Pula 1, 2, 3, Kapolcs 2, Vigándpetend 1, Nagyvázsony 1, 5, Vöröstó 2, Taliándörögd 2, Tapolca 4. Little Plain (111 samples): Gérce 1, Sitke 1, Köcsk 1, Magyargencs 1, 2, Egyházaskesző 1, Kemenesmagasi 1, 2, Ostffyasszonyfa 13, Várkesző 1, Marcaltő 1, and Malomsok 1. Two papers reported floristic results (NAGY 1976, 1978), and another palynological, ecological and climatological plot of three boreholes associated with 9 plates (NAGY 1997). Temperature plots of two boreholes: Pula 3 and Gérce 1 were drawn. These contain the richest palynoflora, and these yielded rich macroflora (HABLY and KVAČEK 1997). Both localities yielded 4.0 4.5 My K/Ar ages (BALOGH et al. 1982, 1986), corresponding to Lower Pliocene Dacian substage. Twenty-two samples were studied from Pula 3 borehole (6.0 36.5 m). Plankton is solely freshwater: Botryococcus braunii and a few Pediastrum. Tropical taxa are one or two Podocarpus, Engelhardtia, Reevesia, palms, Alangium, and Ilex pollen and spores. Subtropical taxa are from the Far East (Ginkgo, Keteleeria, Sciadopitys, Castanopsis, Liquidambar) or Mediterranean (Picea omorica, Cedrus, Zelkova). Temperate forms are mountain conifers, and mixed-forest broadleaves, a few shrubs and herbs. Almost all samples yielded xerophylic Chenopodiaceae and Ephedra. The temperature curve is particularly flat, maximum is at 13.2 C, minimum 11.5 C, mean 12.29 C (Figure 64). Thirty-one of 36 samples taken from Gérce 1 borehole (0.6 130.0 m) were suitable for palaeoclimatological interpretation. There are somewhat more tropical taxa than in Pula 3. Subtropical taxa are almost identical, as the temperate and xerophylic ones. 51

Figure 64. The temperature curve of Pliocene section, borehole Pula 3 64. ábra. A pliocén rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Pula 3 fúrás Figure 65. The temperature curve of Pliocene (Dacian) section, borehole Gérce 1 65. ábra. A pliocén (dáciai) rétegek hőmérsékleti görbéje, Gérce 1 fúrás The temperature curve displays oscillations due to local effects. Maximum is at 13.6 C, minimum 11 C, mean 12 C (Figure 65). Period of alginite formation is younger than Miocene, therefore climate was somewhat cooler. Tropical taxa were protected by neighbouring mountainous regions. Mean temperature (12 C) was warm temperate, with a summer dry season. 52

Palaeoclimatological summary Our climate reconstructions are based on palaeotemperature calculations (NAGY and Ó. KOVÁCS 1997), completed with further ecological and biogeographical data. Miocene climatic changes support the threefold subdivision of the Neogene in Hungary (HÁMOR and HALMAI 1995). Early Miocene started within Late Egerian. Palynological studies were carried out on the Eger holostratotype of the stage, therefore Lower Egerian strata are included in the intepretation as well. Lower part of the Eger holostratotype belongs to the Lower Egerian substage; it is of Late Oligocene age. Egerian Early Miocene Early Egerian climate Palynological studies of the Eger locality started in 1959, together with István Pálfalvy, palaeobotanist (NAGY and PÁLFALVY 1963). Surface and subsurface profiles were investigated, the palynoflora of the holostratotype descibed and detailed environmental interpretation offered (NAGY 1963, 1979, 1992, PLANDEROVÁ et al. 1975). The lower part of the Egerian stage in Eger, Wind brickyard is represented by a borehole and samples from outcropping Bed x. Sporomorphs indicate the highest temperatures in the Hungarian Neogene. Lowest calculated temperature is 15 C, highest 22.7 C. There are lot of tropical sporomorphs (Sapotaceae, T. cingulum fusus, Pentapollenites (Dodonaea, Sapindaceae) fajai, Engelhardtioides microcoryphaeus, palm pollens, tropical, subtropical fern spores). Ratio of tropical species ranges from 21% to 77.7%. Subtropical species range from 4% to 31%. Temperate pollens range from 12.5% to 47.3%, but tropical and subtropical taxa always dominate over them (Table I, figure a). High tropical percentages do not indicate tropical climate, since most tropical taxa live under subtropical climate under favourable conditions. Presence of large amount of temperate taxa exclude the possibility of tropical climate. In the tropics, e.g. in Malaysia, the treeline where temperate plants live is above 4000 m, the timberline above 3600 m (WALTER 1964). This altitude zone was 53

missing in the Neogene of Hungary or the Carpathians. WALTER (1964) mentioned summergreen forests (Alnus, Juglans, Sambucus, Prunus) in the subtropical rainforest zone above 1200 m in Mexico, foothills of the Himalaya, SE Asia, southern Japan. In the early Egerian there was similar warm subtropical climate at Eger: 19 C annual mean temperature, cca. 1000 1200 mm precipitation. Rain was produced by a summer monsoon, arriving from the Paratethys in the SE, and by westerlies blowing from the Atlantic. Late Egerian climate Upper Egerian palynofloras are from the Eger, Wind brickyard profile. Surface samples were taken in 1959 from the then worked wall (for bed notation see BÁLDI 1966). The first interpretable Upper Egerian sample is from Bed k. The overlying 40 m sand is barren. The uppermost 20 m profile was sampled every 20 cm. Late Egerian mean temperatures do not differ much from those of the Early Egerian: mean 18.97 C, minimum 16.9 C, maximum 21.9 C. Floral composition is very similar to the Lower Egerian profile: Sandy seashore supported low diversity of ferns, reducing calculated temperature values. However, a few new taxa appear (Gleichenia, Polypodiaceaesporites gracillimus). River influx is indicated by rarely abundant Calamus palm pollen. Sapotaceae is persistent, together with other tropical taxa (Araliaceae, Symplocos). The latter might indicate increasing aridity, together with Dodonaea, Ilex, Myrtaceae pollens. Temperate taxa (Pinus, Alnus, Ulmus, etc.) occur, especially in the upper section of the profile. Precipitation was variable, indicated by xerophylic taxa. A few samples indicate higher precipitation, with increased amount of temperate gallery forest pollen (Alnus, Salix, Coniferae). These variations are reflected in percentage curves of tropical subtropical, and temperate taxa (Table I, figure b). Tropical taxa range from 20.8% to 68.4%, i.e. these ones are not always dominant anymore. Subtropical taxa are dominant in samples 8, 12, 14, 32. However, total percentage of tropical and subtropical taxa is always higher than that of temperate ones. A relatively long Upper Egerian profile was found by Fót 1 borehole. The rich sporomorph material corroborated the calculations based on the holostratotype. Mean annual temperature is 17 C, almost 2 C lower than at Eger, due to more open conditions. Location of Fót profile received large amount of temperate conifer pollen from the Veporide Mountain chain in the north. Insect-pollinated tropical vegetation, producing much less pollen, was easily dominated by Coniferae pollen (Table I, figure c). The two Upper Egerian profiles yielded 18 C average temperature for the Late Egerian. 54 Eggenburgian climate Longest Eggenburgian profile is Püspökhatvan 4 borehole. There are no extremes in the temperature curve, average temperature is 18.17 C (Table II, figure a). There is no significant change in the vegetation: tropical ferns decrease, certain taxa disappear, others appear. Amount of xerophylic taxa increases. Probably the monsoon effect

decreased. Average annual precipitation was cca. 1000 mm. Boreholes Lajoskomárom 1: 17.77 C, Balaton 26: 18.8 C, Budajenő 2: 16.66 C, Püspökhatvan 4: 18.17 C yielded an Eggenburgian average temperature of 17.8 C. Plots based on climatic requirements of sporomorphs display both very high and very low values. Tropical values range from 75.8 to 15.3%, subtropical ones from 43.7 to 3.4%, while temperate ones range from 73.3 to 6.2%. Subtropical elements lie in the lowest position, sometimes tropical ones dominate, in other case the temperate ones. The latter, the temperate Coniferae pollen were derived from mountain environments in the distant background. Ottnangian climate The short Ottnangian age was the first dominated by swamp forests, lasting throughout the Neogene under uniform conditions. Climate was lower in temperature than in non-swamp areas. Hungarian and Slovakian localities expose the Salgótarján Lignite Formation. The author s studies were carried out mostly on the Borsod county profiles. A profile from the eastern part of this basin yielded the following palaeoclimatological data: the underlying Eggenburgian (Kurittyán 630 borehole) has an average temperature of 18.4 C, the 4 m thick Seam V above yielded 15.9 C. Two boreholes exposed the overlying barren rock: Tardona 30 borehole with 5 samples (327 340 m) yielded 17.2 C, five samples of Diósgyőr 366 borehole (333.8 350.5 m) yielded 18.7 C. Average temperature of the 2 m thick Seam IV is 15.89 C. The overlying barren rock in 10 samples of Tardona 72 borehole (182.5 314.8 m) yielded 14.65 C. No samples were available from Seam III and from barren rock between Seams III and II. Fourteen samples from the 1 m thick Seam II of Edelény yielded average temperature of 15.4 C. There were no samples available from either Seam I or the barren rock above. Five samples from barren rock above Seam I, taken from Diósgyőr 366 borehole (34.6 209.1 m) yielded average temperature of 14.8 C. Temperature values are consistently lower for swamp forests than for the barren interlayers. Gradual upward decrease of temperature is recognized. Tropical sporomorphs reached highest percentage in the lowermost seam at Feketevölgy (32%), lowest percentage (3.3%) in Seam V of Feketevölgy (Table II, figure b). Highest tropical percentage in the barren rock is 58.8 %, while the minimum is 15% (Tardona 30 borehole Table II, figure c). Percentage curve of tropical taxa usually takes the lowermost position in the plots. Seams are dominated by subtropical taxa. Tropical and subtropical percentage decrease, the dominance of the swamp forests is clear in the Seam IV of Lyukóbánya and Seam II of Edelény is by swamp forest taxa (Table III, figure a and b). Dominance of temperate taxa in Várpalota 133 (Bakony) (Table III, figure c) and Tekeres 1 (Mecsek) (Table IV, figure a) boreholes are local results of pollen invasion from mountain temperate conifer forests. Plots of Alsóvadász 1 and Szászvár 8 boreholes (Table IV, figure b) represent swamp forests, while Zengővárkony 45 and Pusztakisfalu VI profiles display characters of Ottnangian warm subtropical climate (Table IV, figure c, Table V, figure a). 55

Average of all Ottnangian localities yield 16.7 C aveage temperature, almost 1 C decrease compared to the Eggenburgian. This is probably due to the extensive appearance of swamp forests. Precipitation is hard to determine (WALTER 1964) due to significant humidity of soils. Development of Ottnangian swamp forests was certainly related to changing sea levels. Sporomorphs indicate aridity sometimes, corroborated by decrease of ferns in this warm subtropical climate. Early Miocene climate No particular boundary can be drawn between the Early and Late Egerian based on palynology. Early Miocene has seen the warmest period of the Miocene in the Pannonian Basin. Sporomorphs indicate warm subtropical climate. Tropical taxa are high in number and in diversity. Number of tropical taxa decrease faster upwards than number of species. Most tropical taxa can find appropriate environment for survival under subtropical climate. Slow but recognizable decrease of temperature is proven between the Egerian and Ottnangian. Early Egerian average temperature was 19 C, Late Egerian 18 C, Eggenburgian 17.8 C, and Ottnangian 16.7 C. Tropical taxa dominate the vegetation in all three ages (see Table I, figure a, b, c). Fót 1 borehole yielded large number of pollen from temperate forests growing on nearby mountains. There is slight change in vegetation, barely visible within the Egerian. Early and Late Egerian has seen xerophylic elements, too. Temperature plot of the Egerian is straight, dominated by tropical taxa (Table II, figure a). Neighbouring mountains and prevailing winds helped to change this picture by introducing overwhelming amount of temperate pollen. Sea level lowstand brought formation of extensive marshes duing Ottnangian, resulting in reduced temperature. Temperatures calculated from coal seam samples are always higher than those calculated from sediment interlayers. 56 Karpatian climate Middle Miocene Sea surface increased during the Karpatian. Vegetation changes indicate climate change. Almost all Lower Miocene species, which are remnants from the Palaeogene, disappear. New taxa appear, tropical ones among others, as suggested by their morphological characters, e.g. Mecsekisporites. However, living forms of newly appearing liverworts mostly live in the temperate zone. Boreholes in and around Mecsek Hills yielded many tropical taxa, although many of the new appearances thrive in the Mediterranean. Komló 120 borehole (Table V, figure b) succeession was probably surrounded by mountains, as indicated by many temperate Coniferae. Boreholes in Bakony Hills (Várpalota, Berhida) yielded extremely rich floras, indicating favourable local environment. Plots indicate increasing dominance of temperate vegetation in line with Alpine uplift (borehole

Hidas 53 Table V, figure c; borehole Litke 17 Table VI, figure a). Tropical elements gain space in Berhida 3 (Table VI, figure b), Fót 1 (Table VI, figure c), and Piliny 8 boreholes (Table VII, figure a). Even Nógrádszakál 2 borehole (Table VII, figure b), yielding very poorly preserved sporomorphs display this change. Subtropical elements have the lowest percentage during the Karpatian. Northern localities yielded many xerophylic taxa. There was subtropical climate duing the Karpatian, with 16 C average temperature. Early Middle Badenian climate Lower Badenian transgression extended beyond that of the Karpatian. Extensive swamp forests were established. Transgression progressed from the SW to the NE. There was swamp forest at Hidas 53 borehole already in the Early Badenian, becoming more extensive during Middle and Late Badenian (Table VII, figure c). Berhida 3 borehole did not yield swamp-forest pollen sporomorphs either in Lower, or in Middle Badenian sediments, while significant amount occurred in the Upper Badenian (Table VIII, figure a). Szokolya 2 borehole yielded only a few pollen grains at the bottom of the succession. (Table VIII, figure b). Comparison of plots of Szokolya 2 and Nógrádszakál 2 boreholes (Table VIII, figure c) show considerable similarity, indicating similar climate. Lower Badenian successions yielded extremely rich palynological spectra. Average temperature of the Early Badenian is almost identical with that of the Karpatian: 16.2 C, a bare 0.2 C higher only. Spectra practically do not contain Palaeogene forms anymore, but those tropical ones which survived under favourable subtropical conditions. A possible dominance was prevented by massive influx of temperate conifer pollen (e.g. at Szokolya). Selective fossilization was partly due to contemporaneous volcanic activity, occasionally destroying all palynomorphs. Certain successions in the north yielded spectra only with mountain conifer pollen and seashore plankton. Middle Miocene climate There was warm subtropical climate, where new tropical taxa appeared (Mecsekisporites genus, new Bifacialisporites species). Early Badenian transgression and uplift of Alpine and Carpathian mountains produced favourable local climate for a new, rich vegetation. Late Badenian climate Late Miocene Late Miocene transgressions prograded from the SE towards the NW (HÁMOR 1997). Mean annual temperature lowered to 15.37 C from Early Badenian 16.2 C, and Middle Badenian 16.3 C. 57

Sarmatian climate Extensive sedimentary cover is available from Sarmatian time, with very few sporomorphs preserved due to volcanism. Sarmatian/Pannonian boundary in Berhida 3 borehole is assigned to 225.6 m depth, where a 5 cm thick biotitic dacite tuff layer has a 12.6±0.5 My age (RAVASZ-BARANYAI et al. 1991). Transgression towards the NW is corroborated by the appearance of certain new pollen and diatom species of eastern origin. Percentage plots display marked reduction of tropical taxa. Cserhátszentiván 1 borehole (HÁMOR 1985) contains almost all the Sarmatian stage. Percentage plots of pollen spectra (Table IX, figure a) display reduced percentage of tropical taxa (max. value 25%, min. value 3%). Subtropical conifers and broadleaves have maximum value of 86%, minimum value of 7%. Temperate species dominate the spectra: max. 88%, min. 14%. There was warm temperate climate during Sarmatian age. Average temperature was 14.2 C, more than 1 C lower than during Late Badenian. Pannonian climate Transgression from the SE to the NW fed a sea larger than in the Sarmatian, of lesser salinity. There are few tropical taxa only, however the flora is rich in subtropical and temperate taxa; many of them is of eastern origin. Average Pannonian temperature was 13 C; the region was in a transition zone between subtropical and warm temperate climates. Percentage plots testify to the dominance of temperate vegetation, in which there is significant amount of subtropical conifers and broadleaves; tropical ones are represented by a single fern species. Tata 26 borehole yielded the following data: maximum value of tropical taxa is 8.6%, minimum is 1.8%; maximum os subtropical taxa 50%, minimum 12.7%, maximum of temperate taxa 83.6%, minimum 50% (Table IX, figure b). Pontian climate Large water body, surrounded by extensive swamps, and uplift of Alps and Carpathians provided very favourable climatic conditions. Average temperature is almost identical with that of the Pannonian: 12.8 C. Naszály 1 borehole yielded maximum values of tropical taxa 11.3%, minimum value 1.4%, maximum of subtropical taxa 50%, minimum 4.7%, maximum of temperate taxa 91.8%, minimum 50% (Table IX, figure c). Percentage of tropical sporomorphs locally exceed that of the Pannonian. Otherwise tropical taxa are represented in rare protected localities only by ferns. There are many east Asian and Mediterranean taxa among the subtropical and temperate ones. Mountain conifers dominate the temperate group, while swamp-forest trees dominate the subtropical one. 58 Late Miocene climate Upper Badenian sporomorphs do not display any changes compared to older spectra, except in the appearance of marine plankton and in slight decrease of temperature.

The Sarmatian has seen 2 C lower temperature and significant decrease of tropical taxa. However, several east Asian elements were recognized among subtropical and temperate taxa, too. Percentage of Mediterranean elements increased. Extensive Pannonian and Pontian sea and the protective mountain ranges provided a very pleasant, warm temperate climate, where even the summer season was not too dry. Percentage plots show that tropical elements almost disappear, and subtropical taxa are reduced. Spectra are dominated by temperate taxa. Pliocene (Dacian) climate Pollen flora preserved in maar lakes of Bakony and Kemeneshát yielded 12 C average temperature, warmer than today. Vegetation developed under warm temperate climate. Presence of tropical elements is due to favourable local conditions (nutrient-rich subsoil) (Pula 3 borehole, Table X, figure a). The flora derived from Upper Miocene floras, with East Asian and Mediterranean relationships. The Miocene climatic curve Eighty-five temperature plots ranging from 24.5 to 5 My (Egerian to Pliocene) are discussed, based on characteristic and data-rich localities studied by the author through decades. Several methods were applied to illustrate palaeoclimatic data. NAGY (1958, p. 126, p. 256) correlated Pontian (Upper Pannonian) and Recent species belonging to the same ecological assemblage to determine palaeotemperature (Table X, figure b). This method provided an easy solution to intepret a not very old swamp forest. The Neogene climate of Mecsek Hills was described by percentages of temperature changes in areal plots for temporally arranged borehole samples (NAGY 1969, p. 510 (278), fig. 62). In my Neogene climate studies (NAGY 1991, 1992) sporomorphs were grouped according to their climatic requirements, ranged in columnar diagrams and the resulting three climate curves interpreted. The present study is based in computer analysis, combining climate curves (NAGY and Ó. KOVÁCS 1997). New data gained after the publication of NAGY (1992) are included. Temperature data were calculated for each sample of selected borehole successions. Climate parameters were determined for each locality, combining them to describe climate of each Neogene age. Further, sporomorphs from one or two boreholes for each stage were grouped according to temperature requirements (tropical, subtropical, temperate). Percentages were calculated and plotted. This yielded an overview of plant groups and their temperature requirements stage by stage. The climate curve is made of mean temperature data. Temperature is the most important parameter of climate, its variations characterize climate changes particular- 59

ly well. Highest value was 20 C at the lower part of Late Egerian. Lowest value never reached 10 C. Comparing the plot with the table of HÁMOR (1995 in: HÁMOR 2001), periods with intensive volcanism can be recognized. Comparing with the plot of NAGY (1992, p. 277) one can easily recognize deviations from a general cooling trend. * * * Acknowledgements The author says sincere thank you to her family for tolerating hardships due to palynological work, and for providing optimal conditions to solve problems arising. Many thanks are due to her son for reparing the graphical palaeoclimatic curves. A great thank you is due to Géza Hámor for professional discussions concerning problems in Neogene palaeogeography and palaeoclimatology. 60

Table I I. tábla Percentage curve of tropical, subtropical and temperate sporomorphs A trópusi, szubtrópusi és mérsékelt égövi sporomorphák százalékos aránya a) b) c) a) Lower Egerian, borehole Wind brickyard, Eger; b) Upper Egerian, outcrop Wind brickyard, Eger; c) Upper Egerian, borehole Fót 1 a) Alsó-egri, Eger, Wind téglagyár, fúrás; b) Felső-egri, Eger, Wind téglagyár, feltárás; c) Felső-egri, Fót 1 fúrás 61

Table II II. tábla Percentage curve of tropical, subtropical and temperate sporomorphs A trópusi, szubtrópusi és mérsékelt égövi sporomorphák százalékos aránya a) b) c) a) Eggenburgian, borehole Püspökhatvan 4; b) Ottnangian Seam V, Feketevölgy, Sajókaza; c) Ottnangian barren, borehole Tardona 30 a) Eggenburgi, Püspükhatvan 4 fúrás; b) Ottnangi, Sajókaza, Feketevölgy V; c) Ottnangi, Tardona 30 fúrás, meddő 62

Table III III. tábla Percentage curve of tropical, subtropical and temperate sporomorphs A trópusi, szubtrópusi és mérsékelt égövi sporomorphák százalékos aránya a) b) c) a) Ottnangian, Seam IV, Lyukóbánya; b) Ottnangian, Seam II, Edelény; c) Ottnangian, borehole Várpalota 133 a) Ottnangi, Lyukóbánya IV. telep; b) Ottnangi, Edelény II. telep; c) Ottnangi, Várpalota 133 fúrás 63

Table IV IV. tábla Percentage curve of tropical, subtropical and temperate sporomorphs A trópusi, szubtrópusi és mérsékelt égövi sporomorphák százalékos aránya a) b) c) a) Ottnangian, borehole Tekeres 1; b) Ottnangian, Borehole Szászvár 8; c) Ottnangian, borehole Zengővárkony 45 a) Ottnangi, Tekeres 1 fúrás; b) Ottnangi, Szászvár 8 fúrás; c) Ottnangi, Zengővárkony 45 fúrás 64

Table V V. tábla Percentage curve of tropical, subtropical and temperate sporomorphs A trópusi, szubtrópusi és mérsékelt égövi sporomorphák százalékos aránya a) b) c) a) Ottnangian, borehole Pusztakisfalu VI; b) Karpatian, Borehole Komló 120; c) Karpatian, borehole Hidas 53 a) Ottnangi, Pusztakisfalu VI fúrás; b) Kárpáti, Komló 120 fúrás; c) Kárpáti, Hidas 53 fúrás 65

Table VI VI. tábla Percentage curve of tropical, subtropical and temperate sporomorphs A trópusi, szubtrópusi és mérsékelt égövi sporomorphák százalékos aránya a) b) c) a) Karpatian, borehole Litke 17; b) Karpatian, borehole Berhida 3; c) Karpatian, borehole Fót 1 a) Kárpáti, Litke 17 fúrás; b) Kárpáti, Berhida 3 fúrás; c) Kárpáti, Fót 1 fúrás 66

Table VII VII. tábla Percentage curve of tropical, subtropical and temperate sporomorphs A trópusi, szubtrópusi és mérsékelt égövi sporomorphák százalékos aránya a) b) c) a) Karpatian, borehole Piliny 8; b) Karpatian, borehole Nógrádszakál 2; c) Lower Badenian, borehole Hidas 53 a) Kárpáti, Piliny 8 fúrás; b) Kárpáti, Nógrádszakál 2 fúrás; c) Alsó-badeni, Hidas 53 fúrás 67

Table VIII VIII. tábla Percentage curve of tropical, subtropical and temperate sporomorphs A trópusi, szubtrópusi és mérsékelt égövi sporomorphák százalékos aránya a) b) c) a) Badenian, borehole Berhida 3; b) Badenian, borehole Szokolya 2; c) Badenian, borehole Nógrádszakál 2 a) Badeni, Berhida 3 fúrás; b) Badeni, Szokolya 2 fúrás; c) Badeni, Nógrádszakál 2 fúrás 68

Table IX IX. tábla Percentage curve of tropical, subtropical and temperate sporomorphs A trópusi, szubtrópusi és mérsékelt égövi sporomorphák százalékos aránya a) b) c) a) Sarmatian, borehole Cserhátszentiván 1; b) Pannonian, borehole Tata 26; c) Pontian, borehole Naszály 1 a) Szarmata, Cserhátszentiván 1 fúrás; b) Pannóniai, Tata 26 fúrás; c) Pontusi, Naszály 1 fúrás 69

Table X X. tábla a) a) Percentage curve of tropical, subtropical and temperate sporomorphs. Pliocene, borehole Pula 3 a) A trópusi, szubtrópusi és mérsékelt égövi sporomorphák százalékos aránya. Pliocén, Pula 3 fúrás b) 70 b) Climatic curve of Miocene b) A miocén éghajlati görbéje