Notes 173. Chapter 2

Notes Chapter 1 1. The case of Serbian irredentism against Croatia and the ensuing violence following the dissolution of the former Yugoslavia is now generally considered something of an outlier. Looking at other potentially irredentist states Russia (Near Abroad), Romania (Moldova), Hungary (Romania, Slovakia, Serbia), Germany (Poland, Czech Republic), Poland (Lithuania, Belarus) we see that military intervention by kin-states is the exception, not the rule. 2. Roger Waldinger and David Fitzgerald, Transnationalism in Question, American Journal of Sociology 109, no. 5 (March 2004): 1186. 3. Robert C. Smith, Migrant Membership as an Instituted Process: Transnationalization, the State and The Extra-Territorial Conduct of Mexican Politics, International Migration Review (2003): 304. 4. The question: Do you think Parliament should pass a law allowing Hungarian citizenship with preferential naturalization to be granted to those, at their request, who claim to have Hungarian nationality, do not live in Hungary, and are not Hungarian citizens, and who prove their Hungarian nationality by means of a Hungarian Identity Card issued pursuant to Article 19 of Act 62 of 2001 or in another way to be determined by a law which is to be passed? Text found at http://www.valasztas.hu/main_en.html. A question on the privatization of hospitals was also on the ballot. 5. World Federation of Hungarians (MVSZ) referendum campaign material. Ne mondj le róluk! (2005-9-2-06), Bartók Béla: Ma nem lehetne magyar allampolgár. (2005-9-2-12), Soha nem hagynám el a szülőföldömet... De magyar vagyok! (2005-9-2-15), in Magyarország Politikai Évkönyve 2005-ről, ed. Péter Sándor, László Vass, Ágnes Tolnai (Budapest: Demokrácia Kutatások Magyar Központja Közhasznú Alapítvány, 2006). Jpeg files on accompanying CD-ROM. 6. Constitution of the Republic of Hungary, paragraph 6, article 3. Enacted by Act 31 of 1989, October 23, 1989. 7. Anonymous communication. Also see Mária M. Kovács, The Politics of Non-resident Dual Citizenship in Hungary, Citizenship Studies 10, no. 4 (September 2006): 62. 8. Officially known as the Law Concerning Hungarians Living in Neighboring Countries. The vote passed by 92 percent.

170 Notes 9. This point has been illustrated in other East European contexts. See David Ost, The Defeat of Solidarity: Anger and Politics in Postcommunist Europe (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2005); Zsuzsa Csergő, Talk of the Nation: Language and Confl ict in Romania and Slovakia (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2007). 10. Kathleen Newland and Erin Patrick, Beyond Remittances: The Role of Diaspora in Poverty Reduction in their Countries of Origin, scoping study by the Migration Policy Institute for the Department of International Development ( July 2004), http://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/beyond_remittances_0704.pdf. 11. Attila Melegh, Globalization, Nationalism, and Petite Imperialism, Romanian Journal of Society and Politics 2, no. 1 (2003): 120. 12. Beatriz Padilla, Latin American Immigration to Southern Europe, Migration Information Source ( June 2007), http://www.migrationinformation.org/feature/ pring.cfm?id=609. 13. Stuart Kaufman, Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 16 18. 14. Zsuzsa Csergő and James M. Goldgeier, Nationalist Strategies and European Integration, Perspectives on Politics 2, no. 1 (2004): 26. 15. Rachel Sherman, From State Introversion to State Extension in Mexico: Modes of Emigrant Incorporation, 1900 1997, Theory and Society 28, no. 6 (1999): 847. 16. Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 79 106. The logic of state-building vs. nation-building could also result in a decision to disengage from a previous policy commitment regarding a population abroad, as occurred when the German government phased out many of its policies toward ethnic German Aussiedler in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union in the decade following reunification, including the promise of automatic German citizenship. 17. V. P. Gagnon, The Myth of Ethnic War: Serbia and Croatia in the 1990s (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004), 7 27. 18. Yossi Shain, The Mexican-American Diaspora s Impact on Mexico, Political Science Quarterly 114, no. 4 (2000): 665. 19. Sherman, From State Introversion to State Extension in Mexico, 847. 20. Laurie A. Brand, Citizens Abroad: Emigration and the State in the Middle East and North Africa (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 216 217. 21. Maria Rosa Garcia-Acevedo, Politics Across Borders: Mexico s Policies toward Mexicans in the United States, Journal of the Southwest 45, no. 4 (Winter 2003): 534 544. 22. Luin Goldring, The Mexican State and Transmigrant Organizations: Negotiating the Boundaries of Membership and Participation, Latin American Research Review 37, no. 3 (2002): 68. 23. Brand, Citizens Abroad. 24. Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, 140.

Notes 171 25. For example, Gagnon, The Myth of Ethnic War. 26. Saideman and Ayres explain this backlash against kin-state engagement as a form of xenophobia. Stephen M. Saideman and R. William Ayres, For Kin or Country: Xenophobia, Nationalism, and War (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 2 3. 27. Kim Barry, Home and Away: The Construction of Citizenship in an Emigration Context, New York University Law Review 81, no. 11 (April 2006): 24. 28. For more on this debate, see Stephen Deets and Sherrill Stroschein, Dilemmas of Autonomy and Liberal Pluralism: Examples Involving Hungarians in Central Europe, Nations and Nationalism 11, no. 2 (2005): 285 305. 29. For example, local referenda on autonomy in the Szekler region of Romania. 30. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Hungary, Hungary in the World, http://www.mfa.gov.hu/kum/en/bal/foreign_policy/hungary_in_the_ world/ (accessed March 22, 2010). 31. Lubos Palata, Slovak Language Law: Slap in the Face, Transitions Online, July 13, 2009, http://www.tol.cz. 32. György Csepeli and Antal Örkény, The Changing Facets of Hungarian Nationalism, Social Research 63 (Spring 1996): 280. 33. For example, Thomas Ambrosio, Irredentism: Ethnic Confl ict and International Politics (Westport, London: Praeger, 2001); Saideman & Ayres, For Kin or Country. 34. Most recently in Csergő s Talk of the Nation and Erin Jenne, Ethnic Bargaining: The Paradox of Minority Empowerment (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2007), which both focus on majority-minority relations in states with large Hungarian minorities. 35. A number of books have been published on Russia s policies toward its diaspora in the Near Abroad. For example, Igor Zevelev, Russia and Its New Diasporas (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2001). 36. Peter A. Hall, Aligning Ontology and Methodology in Comparative Politics, in Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences, ed. James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 394. 37. David A. Lake and Donald S. Rothchild, Spreading Fear: The Genesis of Transnational Ethnic Conflict, in The International Spread of Ethnic Confl ict: Fear, Diffusion, Escalation, ed. David A. Lake and Donald S. Rothchild (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 4. 38. Will H. Moore and David R. Davis, Transnational Ethnic Ties and Foreign Policy, in Spreading Fear, ed. Lake and Rothchild, 92. 39. David Carment and Patrick James, Secession and Irredenta in World Politics: The Neglected Interstate Dimension, in Wars in the Midst of Peace: The International Politics of Ethnic Confl ict, ed. David Carment and Patrick James (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997), 13. 40. Lake and Rothchild, Spreading Fear, 19.

172 Notes 41. Carment and James, Secession and Irredenta, 205. 42. Saideman and Ayres, For Kin or Country, 12 23. 43. See discussion in ibid., 33 35. 44. For example, Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, 55 76. 45. Saideman and Ayres, For Kin or Country; Ambrosio, Irredentism. 46. Milena Anna Vachudova, Europe Undivided: Democracy, Leverage, and Integration after Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); Csergő and Goldgeier, Nationalist Strategies and European Integration ; Jeffrey Checkel, Norms, Institutions, and National Identity in Contemporary Europe, International Studies Quarterly 43, no. 1 (1999): 83 114. 47. Yossi Shain and Aharon Barth, Diasporas and International Relations Theory, International Organization 57, no. 3 (2003): 452. 48. Ilona Kiss and Catherine McGovern, ed., New Diasporas in Hungary, Russia and Ukraine: Legal Regulations and Current Politics (Budapest: Open Society Institute/Constitutional and Legal Policy Institute, 2000); Charles King and Neil J. Melvin, ed., Nations Abroad: Diaspora Politics and International Relations in the Former Soviet Union (Boulder, CO; Oxford, UK: Westview Press, 1998); Oxana Shevel, The Post-Communist Diaspora Laws: Beyond the Good Civic versus Bad Ethnic Dichotomy, East European Politics and Societies 24, no. 1 (Winter 2010): 159 187. 49. As Hungarian legal scholar Judit Tóth has written: [T]he formation of the Hungarian population in the Hungarian basin is not (characteristically) related to the migration of people but to the migration of state borders in the twentieth century and is therefore not a diaspora. Judit Tóth, Connections of Kinminorities to the Kin-state in the Extended Schengen Zone, in The Hungarian Status Law: Nation-Building and/or Minority Protection, ed. Zoltán Kántor, et al. (Sapporo: Slavic Research Centre, Hokkaido University, 2004), 375. 50. Editors forward in Perspectives of Diaspora Existence, ed. Balázs Balogh and Zoltán Ilyés (Budapest: Akadámiai Kiadó, 2006), 7. 51. Zoltán Ilyés, Researching and Interpreting Diaspora: Remarks on Social Science Research into the Diaspora Communities of the Carpathian Basin, in Perspectives of Diaspora Existence, ed. Balogh and Ilyés, 46. 52. Pál Péter Tóth, Diasporization and Population Development, in Perspectives of Diaspora Existence, ed. Balogh and Ilyés, 100. 53. Here I draw on work such as, Smith, Migrant Membership as an Instituted Process ; and Latha Varadarajan, The Domestic Abroad: Diasporas in International Relations (Cambridge, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2010). See Myra A. Waterbury, Bridging the Divide: Towards a comparative framework for understanding external kin-state and migrant sending-state diaspora politics, in Diaspora and Transnationalism: Concepts, Theories and Methods, ed. Rainer Bauböck and Thomas Faist (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010), 131 148, for a fuller discussion of these structural similarities. 54. Rogers Brubaker, The diaspora diaspora, Ethnic and Racial Studies 28, no. 1 (2005): 5 7.

Notes 173 Chapter 2 1. István Pogány, Poets, Revolutionaries and Shoemakers: Law and the Construction of National Identity in Central Europe during the Long Nineteenth Century, Social and Legal Studies 16, no. 1 (2007): 95 112. 2. Magyar is the native term for Hungarian. It will be used throughout this section to designate Hungarian in the linguistic and cultural sense, as opposed to the territorial sense during the period when the lands of Hungary were part of a multiethnic empire, and not a nation-state. 3. Karen Barkey, Negotiated Paths to Nationhood: A Comparison of Hungary and Romania in the Early Twentieth Century, East European Politics and Societies 14, no. 3 (2000): 497 531; Rustem Vambery, The Tragedy of the Magyars: Revisionism and Nazism, Foreign Affairs (April 1925): 445 458. 4. Vambery, The Tragedy of the Magyars, 477. 5. Ignác Romsics, Nation and State in Modern Hungarian History, Hungarian Quarterly 42, no. 164 (Winter 2001), http://www.hungarianquarterly.com/ no164/4.shtml. 6. Vambery, The Tragedy of the Magyars, 477. 7. Paul Lendvai, The Hungarians: A Thousand Years of Victory in Defeat (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 192. 8. For example, the great national poet and martyr of the 1848 revolution, Sándor Petőfi, had a Serb background and his parents spoke heavily accented Hungarian. The family name was originally Petrovics, until it was Magyarized into Petőfi. See Lendvai, The Hungarians, 220. For more on Kossuth and Széchenyi, see 192 207. 9. In 1867, minorities were 53.4 percent of the population. Pogány, Poets, Revolutionaries and Shoemakers, 98. 10. Rustem Vambery, Nationalism in Hungary, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 232 (1944): 79. 11. Quoted in Romsics, Nation and State in Modern Hungarian History. 12. Vambery, The Tragedy of the Magyars, 478. 13. Barkey, Negotiated Paths to Nationhood, 512. 14. Vambery in Nationalism in Hungary writes, for example, that there were two million Slovaks represented by two members of parliament, 79. 15. Joseph Rothschild, East Central Europe Between the Two World Wars (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1974), 138. 16. Marius Turda, The Magyar: A Ruling Race : The Idea of National Superiority in Fin-de-Siecle Hungary, European Review of History 10, no. 1 (2003): 5 32. 17. András Gerő, Imagined History: Chapters from the Nineteenth and 20th Century Hungarian Symbolic Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 16. 18. György Ránki, National Grievances and Right-Wing Radicalism, in Hungarians and Their Neighbors in Modern Times, 1867 1950, ed. Ferenc Glatz (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 141. 19. Barkey, Negotiated Paths to Nationhood, 518 519.

174 Notes 20. Rothschild, East Central Europe between the Two World Wars, 156. 21. Magda Ádam, Complete Encirclement: The Establishment of the Little Entente, in Hungarians and Their Neighbors in Modern Times, 1867 1950, ed. Ferenc Glatz (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 145. 22. István Deák, Hungary, in The European Right: A Historical Profile, ed. Hans Rogger and Eugen Weber (Berkley: University of California Press, 1965), 364. 23. Steven Béla Várdy, The Impact of Trianon Upon the Hungarian Mind: Irredentism and Hungary s Path to War, in Hungary in the Age of Total War (1938 1948), ed. N. F. Dreisziger (New York: Distributed by Columbia University Press, 1998), 36. 24. In October 1918, Mihály Károlyi was put into power after a bloodless revolution to dissolve the monarchy and proclaim Hungary s status as an independent republic. In March 1919, Károlyi was forced to resign after failing to secure favorable conditions for Hungary during the Paris Peace negotiations and the Communist regime of Béla Kun takes power. During the summer and fall of 1919, Kun s government falls, and Admiral Horthy and his counterrevolutionary forces enter Budapest and carry out the White Terror against Bolsheviks. A new conservative right government takes power in January 1920 and Horthy is made Regent of Hungary on March 1, 1920. 25. Deák, Hungary, 372. 26. Romsics, Nation and State in Modern Hungarian History, quoting Count Ápponyi, leader of the Hungarian peace delegation at Trianon in his essay Justice for Hungary. 27. Gerő, Imagined History, 11. 28. Miklós Zeidler, Irredentism in Everyday Life in Hungary during the Inter-war Period, Regio: Minorities, Politics, Society 2002: 72. 29. Várdy, The Impact of Trianon upon the Hungarian Mind, 39. 30. For example, Andrew Fall, Hungary s Claim to the Restoration of Transylvania, Danubian Review 8, no. 3 (1940). 31. George Schöpflin, Transylvania: Hungarians Under Romanian Rule, in The Hungarians: A Divided Nation, ed. Stephen Borsody (New Haven: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 1988), 119. 32. László Kürti, The Remote Borderland: Transylvania in the Hungarian Imagination (Albany: SUNY Press, 2001), 15. 33. Eva S. Balogh, Hungarian Foreign Policy, 1918 1945, in The Hungarians, ed. Borsody, 375. 34. Várdy, The Impact of Trianon upon the Hungarian Mind, 34. 35. Ránki, National Grievances and Right-Wing Radicalism, 141. 36. In fact, Gömbös had been in close contact with the German Nazi party since 1921. Rothschild, East Central Europe between the Two World Wars, 176. 37. Similar covert forms of financial and political support were provided by Germany during this time to ethnic Germans in the East. Rogers Brubaker, Accidental Diasporas and External Homelands in Central and Eastern Europe: Past and Present (working paper, Institute for Advanced Studies, Vienna, Political Science Series no. 71, 2000), 12, http://works.bepress.com/wrb/10/.

Notes 175 38. For Romania, Nándor Bárdi, A Keleti Akció: A romániai magyar intézmények anyaországi támogatása az 1920-as években [The Eastern Campaign: Mothercountry support for Romanian Hungarian institutions in the 1920s] in Magyarságkutatás, 1995 96, ed. László Diószegi (Budapest: Teleki László Alapítvány, 1996), 143 190. For Czechoslovakia, Béla Angyal, A csehszlovákiai magyarság anyaországi támogatása a két világháború között [Support Given to the Ethnic Hungarians in Czechoslovakia by Hungary in the Interwar Period] Regio: Kisebbség, Politika, Társadalom 2000, no. 3: 133 177. 39. Piroska Balogh, Transylvanism: Revision or Regionalism?, in Geopolitics in the Danube Region: Hungarian Reconciliation Efforts, 1848 1998, ed. Ignác Romsics and Béla K. Király (Budapest; New York: Central European University Press, 1998), 247. 40. Bárdi, A Keleti Akció, 164. The korona was the official currency of the Austro-Hungarian empire from 1892 until 1918. 41. Zoltán Pálfy, The Dislocated Transylvanian Hungarian Student Body and the Process of Nation-Building after 1918, in Nation-Building and Contested Identities: Romanian and Hungarian Case Studies, ed. Balázs Trencsényi, et al. (Budapest; Iasi: Regio Books, Editura Polirom, 2001), 181. 42. Bárdi, A Keleti Akció, 170 173. 43. Balogh, Transylvanism, 247; Angyal, A csehszlovákiai magyarság anyaországi támogatása a két világháború között, 168. 44. Bárdi, A Keleti Akció, 160 162. 45. Ibid., 175. 46. Rothschild, East Central Europe between the Two World Wars, 166. 47. Balogh, Hungarian Foreign Policy, 1918 1945, 62. 48. István Vida, The Hungarian Question in Paris, in Hungarians and Their Neighbors in Modern Times, ed. Glatz, 222. 49. Laszlo Deme, Perceptions and Problems of Hungarian Nationality and National Identity in the Early 1990s, International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society 12, no. 2 (1998): 308. 50. Andrew Ludanyi, Programmed Amnesia and Rude Awakening: Hungarian Minorities in International Politics, 1945 1989, in 20th Century Hungary and the Great Powers, ed. Ignác Romsics (Boulder, CO; Highland Lakes, NJ: Social Science Monographs; Atlantic Research and Publications; New York: Distributed by Columbia University Press, 1995), 307 336. 51. István Deák, The Past as an Obstacle to Danubian Reconciliation: Introduction, in The Hungarians, ed. Borsody, 298. 52. Robert R. King, Minorities under Communism: Nationalities as a Source of Tension among Balkan Communist States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 21. 53. Ludanyi, Programmed Amnesia and Rude Awakening, 312. 54. King, Minorities under Communism, 76. 55. Pierre Kende, Communist Hungary and the Hungarian Minorities, in The Hungarians, ed. Borsody, 283. 56. King, Minorities under Communism, 77.

176 Notes 57. Ludanyi, Programmed Amnesia and Rude Awakening, 312. 58. Kádár famously proclaimed that if Soviet tanks entered Budapest, I will go into the streets and fight against you with my bare hands. Quoted in Tibor Méray, Thirteen Days that Shook the Kremlin (New York,: Praeger, 1959), 10. 59. Ignác Romsics, Hungary in the Twentieth Century (Budapest: Corvina, 1999), 404. 60. The Hungarian majority there decreased from 77 to 62 percent. Kürti, The Remote Borderland, 37. 61. Charles Gati, Hungary and the Soviet Bloc (Durham [NC]: Duke University Press, 1986), 160 161. 62. Romsics, Hungary in the Twentieth Century, 329. 63. King, Minorities under Communism, 119. 64. J. F. Brown, Eastern Europe and Communist Rule (Durham: Duke University Press, 1988), 438. 65. King, Minorities under Communism, 44. 66. For example, see speech by the foreign affairs secretary Mátyás Szűrös in a lecture given at the Foreign Affairs Institute of Sweden on October 15, 1986. Abridged version available in Mátyás Szűrös, National and International in Hungarian Foreign Policy, The New Hungarian Quarterly 28, no. 105 (1987): 17 30. 67. Ludanyi, Programmed Amnesia and Rude Awakening, 318. 68. Raphael Vago, The Grandchildren of Trianon: Hungary and the Hungarian Minority in the Communist States (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1989), 150. 69. King, Minorities under Communism, 117. 70. Quoted in Kende, Communist Hungary and the Hungarian Minorities, 290. Originally printed in the newspaper Frankfurter Rundschau. 71. Schöpflin, Transylvania, 138. 72. Rudolf L. Tőkés, Hungary s Negotiated Revolution: Economic Reform, Social Change, and Political Succession, 1957 1990 (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 230. 73. János Kis, Nation-Building and Beyond, in Can Liberal Pluralism Be Exported? Western Political Theory and Ethnic Relations in Eastern Europe, ed. Will Kymlicka and Magdalena Opalski (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 234. 74. Gyula Illyés, Válasz Herdernek és Adynak [A Reply to Herder and Ady] Magyar Nemzet, December 25, 1977, and January 1, 1978. 75. George Schöpflin, Opposition and Para-Opposition: Critical Currents in Hungary, 1968 1978, in Opposition in Eastern Europe, ed. Rudolf L. Tőkés (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), 154. 76. Tőkés, Hungary s Negotiated Revolution, 195. 77. The lack of unity became apparent at the MDF-dominated Lakitelek meeting in 1987. For more on the meeting at Lakitelek, see Sándor Agócs and Endre Medvigy, A Magyarság Esélyei: a tanácskozás hiteles jegyzőkönyve, Lakitelek, 1987. szept. 27 [Hungary s Prospects: The Official Record of the Conference, Lakitelek, September 27, 1987] (Lakitelek; Budapest: Antológia; Püski, 1991).

Notes 177 78. See Tőkés, Hungary s Negotiated Revolution, 200. 79. Attila Ara-Kovács, Rudolf Joó, and Magyar Demokrata Forum, Report on the Situation of the Hungarian Minority in Rumania: Prepared for the Hungarian Democratic Forum (Budapest: [s.n.], 1988). 80. László Valki, Hungary: Understanding Western Messages, in Democratic Consolidation in Eastern Europe, Volume 2: International and Transnational Factors, ed. Jan Zielonka and Alex Pravda (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 282. 81. Reprinted in János Kis, Politics in Hungary: For a Democratic Alternative, trans. Gábor J. Follinus (Boulder, CO: Social Science Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 1989), 211 217. 82. András Balogh, A Kisebbségpolitikai rendszerváltozás kezdete [The Beginning of Minority Policy Transformation], in Mérleg és Számvetés Tizenhárom Év Után: A magyarságpolitikai rendszerváltás kezdete [Balance and Reckoning After Thirteen Years: The Beginning of the Transformation in Ethnic Hungarian Policy], ed. Csaba Tabajdi (Budapest: Codex Print Kft., 2001), 20. 83. Ludanyi, Programmed Amnesia and Rude Awakening, 321 323. 84. Csaba Tabajdi, Több évtizedes hallgatás után [After Many Years of Silence], in Mérleg és Számvetés, ed. Tabajdi, 72. 85. Mátyás Szűrös, Hungary, Europe, and the World, The New Hungarian Quarterly 28, no. 107 (1987): 25. 86. Radio Free Europe, Minden magyar tagja a magyar nemzetnek [Every Hungarian is a Member of the Hungarian Nation], in Mérleg és Számvetés, ed. Tabajdi, 144. 87. Imre Szokai and Csaba Tabajdi, Mai politikánk és a nemzetiségi kérdés [Our Current Policy and the Nationality Question], Magyar Nemzet, February 13, 1988, reprinted in Mérleg és Számvetés, ed. Tabajdi, 37. 88. John A. Callcott, U.N. Human Rights Commission Condemns Romania, United Press International, March 9, 1989. 89. Kende, Communist Hungary and the Hungarian Minorities, 477. 90. Judy Dempsey, Romania Refugees Find Sanctuary in Hungary, The Financial Times, May 13, 1988. 91. United Press International, Hungary Signs Accord with U.N. Refugee Agency, October 4, 1989, http://www.lexisnexis.com. 92. Resolution No. 1048 of 1989. 93. Judit Tóth, Diaspora Politics: Programs and Prospects, in New Diasporas in Hungary, Russia and Ukraine, ed. Kiss and McGovern, 97. 94. Pál Köteles, Nemzeti stratégiát, in Mérleg és Számvetés, ed. Tabajdi, 131. Chapter 3 1. András Körösényi, The Decay of Communist Rule in Hungary, in Post- Communist Transition: Emerging Pluralism in Hungary, ed. András Bozóki, András Körösényi, and George Schöpflin (London; New York: Pinter; St. Martin s Press, 1992), 10.

178 Notes 2. Anna Grzymała-Busse, Redeeming the Communist Past: The Regeneration of Communist Parties in East Central Europe (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 3 8. 3. Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 83. 4. Alex Bandy, 50,000 Rally in Solidarity With Romania s Ethnic Hungarians, Associated Press, March 20, 1990. 5. Zsuzsa Csergő, Talk of the Nation: Language and Confl ict in Romania and Slovakia (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2007), 39 43. 6. László Szekeres, one of the founding members of the Democratic Alliance of Vojvodina Hungarians (VMDK). See Hungarian Party in Vojvodina Fights One of Greatest Assimilations in Europe, Budapest home service, December 2, 1990, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, December 7, 1990. 7. János Avar, Sürgetjük a nemzetközi közösséget a kisebbségi jogok aktív védelmére : Antall József az ENSZ-ben [We Are Urging the International Community toward Active Protection of Minority Rights: Antall at the UN], Magyar Nemzet, October 2, 1991. 8. Endre Sik and Bori Simonovits, Jelentés az MTA Kisebbségkutató Intézet Nemzetközi Migráció és Menekültügyi Kutatások Központja által készített közvelemény-kutatássorozat három hullámának eredményeiről [Report on the Results of Three Waves of Public Opinion Research Series Prepared by the Center for International Migration and Refugee Research of the Minority Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences], TÁRKI (unpublished ms, October 2002), 12 13. 9. H. D. Klingemann, Tamás Kolosi, and Péter Robert, Hungarian 1990 Post- Election Survey, (codebook, Zentralarchiv für Empirische Sozialforschung, University of Cologne, ZA Study 2486), 58, http://www.gesis.org/en/data_ service/eastern_europe/data/codebook/cb2486.pdf. 10. Parliamentary declaration no. 46 of 1990. Quote from György Csóti, an MDF spokesperson for the Foreign Affairs Committee. Foreign Affairs Committee Submission on Minorities, Budapest home service, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, May 17, 1990. 11. Created by government resolution no. 1057 dated October 7, 1992. Broadcasting began on December 24, 1992. 12. By Government Decree no. 90 of 1992, dated May 29, 1992. In the spring of 1990 the Secretariat for the Hungarians beyond the borders was split off from the National and Ethnic Minority Office by the Antall government. 13. Jeszenszky Géza külügyminiszter nyilatkozata első nemzetközi sajtókonferenciája keretében [Statement of Foreign Affairs Minister Géza Jeszenszky at his First International Press Conference], May 30, 1990. Reprinted in Mérleg és Számvetés, ed. Tabajdi, 368 369. 14. István Szent-Iványi, speaking for the opposition SZDSZ. Kisebbségi program: Az SZDSZ aláírna [Minority Program: The SZDSZ Would Sign It], Köztársaság 1 (1993).

Notes 179 15. Avar, Sürgetjük a nemzetközi közösséget a kisebbségi jogok aktív védelmére. 16. Jeszenszky Géza külügyminiszter válasza az Országgűlés ülésszakán a magyar nemzeti kisebbségek ügyében elhangzott képviselői interpellációra [Reply of Foreign Minister Géza Jeszenszky during the Parliamentary Session on the Matter of the Hungarian National Minorities], October 30, 1990. Reprinted in Mérleg és Számvetés, ed. Tabajdi, 377 380. 17. András Bozóki, Magyar Panoptikum (Budapest: Kávé Kiadó, 1996), 213. 18. László Valki, Hungary: Understanding Western Messages, in Democratic Consolidation in Eastern Europe, Volume 2: International and Transnational Factors, ed. Jan Zielonka and Alex Pravda (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001) 287 290. 19. George Schöpflin, From Communism to Democracy in Hungary, in Post- Communist Transition, ed. Bozóki, Körösényi, and Schöpflin, 106. 20. Az Országgyűlés hat pártja parlamenti frakcióinak nyilatkozata a trianoni békeszerződés aláírása 70. évfordulója alkalmából [Declaration of the Six Party Factions of Parliament on the Occasion of the 70th Anniversary of the Signing of the Trianon Peace Treaty], June 1, 1990. Reprinted in Mérleg és Számvetés, ed. Tabajdi, 370 371. 21. Speech at the third MDF party congress, Folytatta munkáját az MDF III. Országos gyűlése Antall József beszéde [The MDF Continues Its Work]. Reprinted in Háttérinformációk-Dokumentumok: A Szomszédos államokban élő magyarokról. II. Kötet Kormányprogramok és kormánypolitika 1990-től, ed. Pálné Haraszti (Budapest: Orszaggyűlési Könyvtár Képviselő Tájékoztatási Osztály, 2001), 469. 22. State Secretary for Defence Heads Committee for Re-erection of Trianon Memorial, Budapest home service, April 2, 1991, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, April 5, 1991. 23. Prime Minister Calls for Reconsideration of Horthy s Historical Role, Hungarian Telegraph Agency (MTA), August 23, 1993, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, August 26, 1993. 24. András György Lengyel, Szent-Iványi István: alaptalan a nemzetietlenség vádja [István Szent-Iványi: The Accusation of Being Unnational is Baseless], Magyar Hírlap, September 8, 1992. 25. Michael Shields, Hungary backs its exiles, The Independent, August 20, 1992. 26. Judith Tóth, Diaspora Politics: Programs and Prospects, in New Diasporas in Hungary, Russia and Ukraine: Legal Regulations and Current Politics, ed. Ilona Kiss and Catherine McGovern (Budapest: Open Society Institute/Constitutional and Legal Policy Institute, 2000) 116. 27. Josef Makai, Away from Confrontation: Budapest Has Moved to Reassure its Neighbors, Balkan War Report, no. 29 (October/November 1994): 19. 28. Open Letter from HDUR Leader Toekes to Parties in Hungary on Coming Elections, Népszabadság, April 28, 1994, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, May 4, 1994.

180 Notes 29. Allies of the MDF included organizations such as Co-Existence (Egyettülés) and the Hungarian Christian Democratic Movement (MKDM) in Slovakia, a faction of the Carpathian Hungarian Democratic Alliance (KMDSZ) in Ukraine, and the Tőkés wing of RMDSZ in Romania. 30. Silvia Mihalikova, The Hungarian Minority in Slovakia: Confl ict Over Autonomy, in Managing Diversity in Plural Societies: Minorities, Migration and Nation-Building in Post-Communist Europe, ed. Magda Opalski (Ontario: Forum Eastern Europe, 1998), 155. 31. Jeszenszky Géza külügyminiszter válasza az Országgűlés ülésszakán. 32. Premier Antall Assumes Spiritual Leadership of Hungarians Beyond the Borders, Hungarian TV (Budapest) August 16, 1992, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, August 22, 1992. 33. Valki, Hungary, 296. 34. Cabinet Chief Endre Marinovich reiterating Antall s position. MTI Econews, Cabinet Chief Press Reactions to Antall s Statement, July 9, 1991; Also see Valki, Hungary, 298 299. 35. Hungarian Premier: Slovakia s Admission to Council of Europe Should Be Postponed, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, Monitoring Report, June 28, 1993. 36. Margit Bessenyey Williams, European Integration and Minority Rights: The Case of Hungary and Its Neighbors, in Norms and Nannies: The Impact of International Organizations on the Central and East European States, ed. Ronald H. Linden (Lanham, Boulder: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), 238 239. 37. See MDF Spokesman Explains Party s Foreign Policy Line, Hungarian Radio (Budapest), March 25, 1994, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, March 28, 1994. 38. Milena Anna Vachudova, Europe Undivided: Democracy, Leverage, and Integration after Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005) 37 59. 39. George Schöpflin, The Hungarian Exception? The Quiet National Question, Balkan War Report, no. 29 (October/November 1994): 17. 40. Valki, Hungary, 299. 41. Kisebbségi program: Az SZDSZ aláírna. 42. Erin Jenne, Ethnic Bargaining: Democracy, Leverage, and Integration after Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 2 6; 45 48; 95. 43. Janusz Bugajski, Nations in Turmoil: Confl ict and Cooperation in Eastern Europe (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 161. 44. Makai, Away from Confrontation, 18. 45. Nándor Bárdi, Cleavages in Cross-Border Magyar Minority Politics, 1989 1998, Regio: Minorities, Politics, Society 2000: 11. 46. A bilateral treaty on Good Neighborly Relations was signed with Ukraine on December 6, 1991, and was preceded by a Declaration of Principles on Guaranteeing the Rights of National Minorities, which was signed on May 31, 1991. The treaty with Ukraine was soon followed by similar agreements with Croatia, Slovenia, and Poland.

Notes 181 47. Williams, European Integration and Minority Rights, 235. 48. István Csurka, Néhány gondolat a rendszerváltozás első két esztendeje és az MDF új programja kapcsán, Magyar Fórum, August 20, 1992. 49. Tom Lantos Meets the Press in Budapest, Hungarian News Agency (MTI), as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, September 1, 1992. 50. Press Conference Indicates Antall-Csurka Reconciliation and Cabinet Reshuffle, Hungarian Radio (Budapest), January 24, 1993, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, January 27, 1993. 51. SZDSZ representative Balint Magyar, quoted in HDF National Convention Opinions, MTI Hungarian News Agency, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, January 23, 1993. 52. In April 1994, 45.29 percent of those polled considered the MDF most likely to improve the situation of ethnic Hungarians abroad. H. D. Klingemann and Gábor Tóka, 1994 Hungarian Election Pre-Election Studies 1992 1994, (codebook, Zentralarchiv für Empirische Sozialforschung, University of Cologne, ZA Study 3056), 174, http://www.gesis.org/en/data_service/eastern_europe/ data/codebook/cb3056.pdf. 53. Ibid., 31. 54. As a contrast, 91.9 percent felt that increasing pensions and social benefits were important. Ibid., 45, 195. 55. Sik and Simonovits, Jelentés az MTA Kisebbségkutató Intézet Nemzetközi Migráció és Menekültügyi Kutatások Központja, 12 13. 56. TÁRKI, Hungary Study in ISSP (International Social Survey Program) 1995 National Identity Survey Codebook, (Zentralarchiv für Empirische Sozialforschung, University of Cologne, May 1998), http://www.social-sciencegesis.de. 57. Klingemann and Tóka, 1994 Hungarian Election Pre-Election Studies 1992 1994, 109, 174. 58. Ibid., 203. 59. Funeral Speech Praises Antall s Policy towards Hungarians Abroad, Duna TV (Budapest), as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, December 21, 1993. 60. Boross Meets Ethnic Hungarian Leaders, Hungarian News Agency (MTI), as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, February 11, 1994; Boross on Hungarians Abroad, Farming Subsidies & the Media, Hungarian Radio (Budapest), as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, December 29, 1993. 61. The idea of niche emergence comes from Jens Rydgren, Is Extreme Right- Wing Populism Contagious? Explaining the Emergence of a New Party Family, European Journal of Political Research 44, no. 3 (2005): 418. 62. Barnabás Rácz and István Kukorelli, The Second-Generation Post-Communist Elections in Hungary in 1994, Europe-Asia Studies 47, no. 2 (March 1995): 261. 63. Government of Hungary, The Programme of the Government of the Republic of Hungary, 1994 1998, ( July 1994): 91.

182 Notes 64. Government Resolution no. 1021 of 1995 and no. 104 of 1997. 65. Laws no. 136 (CXXXVI) and 81 (LXXXI). 66. Approximately 1 billion, 324 forints. László Lábody and István Íjgyártó, Kormánypolitika pártpolitika határon túli magyarok [Government Policy Party Politics Hungarians beyond the Border], in Magyarország Politikai Évkönyve 1995 ről, ed. Sándor Kurtán, Péter Sándor, László Vass (Budapest: Demokrácia Kutatások Magyar Központja Közhasznú Alapítvány: 1996), 356. 67. The Programme of the Government of the Republic of Hungary, 93. 68. See A Magyar-Magyar Csúcstalálkozó Közös Nyilatkozata [Joint Statement of the Hungarian-Hungarian Summit], in A Státustörvény: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika [The Status Law: Documents, Essays, Articles], ed. Zoltán Kántor (Budapest: Teleki László Alapítvány, 2002), 159 161. 69. Makai, Away from Confrontation, 19. 70. The Programme of the Government of the Republic of Hungary, 113. 71. April 13, 1991, edition. Quoted in Mátyás Eörsi, Egy érzés béklyójában: A státustörvényről [In the Fetters of a Feeling: About the Status Law], Magyar Narancs, June 28, 2001. Reprinted in A Státustörvény, ed. Kántor, 502 506. 72. Bill Lomax, The Structure and Organization of Hungary s Political Parties, in Party Structure and Organization in East-Central Europe, ed. Paul G. Lewis (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 1996), 36. 73. Csilla Kiss, From Liberalism to Conservatism: The Federation of Young Democrats in Post-Communist Hungary, East European Politics and Society 16, no. 3 (2003): 743. 74. Tamás Fricz, The Orbán Government: An Experiment in Regime Stabilization, in From Totalitarian to Democratic Hungary: Evolution and Transformation, 1990 2000, ed. Mária Schmidt and László Gy. Tóth (Boulder: Social Science Monographs, 2000), 523. 75. In 1994, Fidesz had only 2.6 percent party membership and 37 regional and local party offices. James Toole, Straddling the East-West Divide: Party Organization and Communist Legacies in East Central Europe, Europe-Asia Studies, 55, no. 1 ( January 2003): 105 107. 76. This characterization is attributed to József Torgyán, the leader of the Smallholders Party. András Bozóki (Professor of Political Science, Central European University), interview with the author, May 6, 2003; Antal Örkény (Professor of Sociology and Director of the Minority Studies program, Eötvös Lorand University), interview with the author, April 16, 2003. 77. Ivan T. Berend, Jobbra Át! (Right Face) Right-Wing Trends in Post-Communist Hungary, in Democracy and Right-Wing Politics in Eastern Europe in the 1990s, ed. Joseph Held (Boulder: East European Monographs, 1993), 122. 78. Kenneth Ka-Lok Chan, Strands of Conservative Politics in Post-Communist Transitions: Adapting to Europeanization and Democratization, in Party Development and Democratic Change in Post-Communist Europe, ed. Paul G. Lewis (London, Portland: Frank Cass, 2001), 159 161.

Notes 183 79. Zsolt Enyedi, The Role of Agency in Cleavage Formation, European Journal of Political Research 44, no. 5 (2005), 710. 80. The gyermekgondozási díj (also known as the gyed ), which was a childcare benefit given by the state for each child, and the gyes (gyermekgondozási segély), a type of maternity benefit, were both rolled back by the Socialist government, causing a great deal of controversy. 81. Brigid Fowler, Concentrated Orange: Fidesz and the Remaking of the Hungarian Centre-Right, 1994 2002, Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics 20, no. 3 (2004): 104 105; and Fricz, The Orbán Government, 324. 82. József Szájer, Van más választás: Polgári Magyarország [There s Another Choice: Civic Hungary Speech Made at the 8th Fidesz Congress, April 19, 1997]. Reprinted in József Szájer, Jogállam, Szabadság, Rendszerváltoztatás: Beszédek, Írások, Dokumentumok, 1987 1997 (Budapest: DAC Alapítvány, 1998), 122 123. 83. Between 1993 and 1997, Gallup polling showed an 18 percent decrease (from 73 to 55 percent) in the number of voters identifying with national feelings. Hungarian Gallup Institute, Értékrendek és szavazótáborok: Nemzet, vallásosság és tolerancia [Value Systems and Voter Camps: Nation, Religiosity, and Tolerance] http://www.gallup.hu/gallup/self/polls/nepszava/nepszava3.html. 84. With the exception of SZDSZ supporters (and MSZP, to a much lesser degree), supporters of all parties became less supportive of strengthening privatization reforms between 1993 and 1997. See Hungarian Gallup Institute, Generációk, értékek, szavazótáborok [Generations, values, voter camps], http://www.gallup. hu/gallup/self/polls/nepszava/nepszava2.html. 85. Gyula Horn, Azok a Kilencvenes Évek... [Those 1990s...] (Budapest: Kossuth Kiadó, 1999), 36. 86. Quoted in Williams, European Integration and Minority Rights, 237. The treaty was finally ratified on June 13, 1995. Slovakia s parliament took over a year to ratify. 87. Joel Blocker, Romania/Hungary: Historic Basic Treaty Signed Today RFE-RL, September 16, 1996. 88. Géza Gecse, Aláírás után a román-magyar alapszerződésről: Interjú Kovács László külügyminiszterrel [The Romanian-Hungarian Basic Treaty after Its Signing: Interview with Foreign Minister László Kovács], in Állam és Nemzet a Rendszerváltás Után [State and Nation after the Transition], ed. Géza Gecse (Budapest: Kairosz, 2002), 46 47. 89. Text of Interview with Hungarian Political State Secretary Csaba Tabajdi by Ferenc Garzo: More Help Instead of Aid Csaba Tabajdi on National Minority Policy, Népszava, July 23, 1994, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, July 28, 1994. 90. In Hungarian, Hatpárti Határon Túli Kisebbségi Konzultatív Bizottság. Lábody and Íjgyártó, Kormánypolitika pártpolitika határon túli magyarok, 357. 91. Horn, Azok a Kilencvenes Évek..., 38 40.

184 Notes 92. Varjú Frigyes, Pártolandó autonómiatörekvések: Németh Zsolt a liberális és konservatív értékek harmóniájáról, a kormány paternalizmusáról és a határon túli magyarságról [Supporting Endeavors toward Autonomy: Zsolt Németh on the Harmony of Liberal and Conservative Values, the Paternalism of the Government, and Hungarians beyond the Border], Magyar Nemzet, June 5, 1996. 93. Quoting Fidesz-MPP representative, Zoltán Rockenbauer in Tibor Moldoványi, Határtalan Érdekeink [Our Interests Have No Borders], Magyar Nemzet, August 3, 1996. 94. István Bundula, Ő tényleg csak tíz és fél millió magyar miniszterelnöke: Csapody Miklós, az Országgyűlés külügyi bizottságának tagja [He Is Certainly the Prime Minister of Only Ten-and-a-Half Million Hungarians: Miklós Csapody, Member of the Foreign Affairs Committee of Parliament], Magyar Narancs, August 3, 1995. 95. Hungarian Minister Rejects Opposition Attack over Romania Policy, Hungarian News Agency (MTI), August 27, 1997, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, August 29, 1997. 96. Lábody and Íjgyártó, Kormánypolitika pártpolitika határon túli magyarok, 358. 97. Zsuzsa Csergő, Beyond Ethnic Division: Majority-Minority Debate about the Postcommunist State in Romania and Slovakia, East European Politics and Societies 16, no. 1 (2002): 17. 98. RFE-RL Daily Report, Slovakia: National Party to Propose Annulment of Treaty with Hungary, August 1, 1996. 99. Government Office of Hungarian Minorities Abroad, Report on the Situation of the Hungarians in Romania, July 1, 2005, http://www.hhrf.org/htmh/ en/?menuid=0404. 100. Attila Ágh, A Horn-Kormány hintapolitikája [The Horn Government s Politics of Opportunism], Magyar Hírlap, August 26, 1996. 101. Coexistence (Együttélés), the Hungarian Christian Democratic Movement (MKDH), and the Hungarian Civic Party (MPP). 102. Ágh, A Horn-Kormány hintapolitikája. 103. Interview with Miklos Duray in Népszava. Translated in FBIS-EEU, Duray Criticizes Hungarian Foreign Ministries, January 5, 1995. 104. Lábody and Íjgyártó, Kormánypolitika pártpolitika határon túli magyarok, 359. 105. Transylvanian Bishop s Reconciliation Proposals Met Coolly in Hungary, Rompres news agency (Bucharest), as provided by BBC Monitoring Summary of World Broadcasts, February 19, 1996. 106. Hungarians from Ukraine Feel Betrayed by Budapest Government, Hungarian Radio, (Budapest), December 6, 1996, as provided by BBC Monitoring Summary of World Broadcasts, December 9, 1996. 107. Young Democrats and Ethnic Hungarians in Romania Discuss Reconciliation Process, Duna TV (Budapest), March 5, 1996, as provided by BBC Monitoring Summary of World Broadcasts, March 6, 1996.

Notes 185 108. A Magyar-Magyar Csúcstalálkozó Közös Nyilatkozata, 159. 109. Népszabadság, Horn: Támogatjuk a kisebbségek jogvédelmét [Horn: We Support the Legal Protection of Minorities], July 5, 1996. 110. Attila Ara-Kovács, Státusigények és lehetőségek [Status Claims and Opportunities], Népszava, November 16, 1999. 111. Karen Dawisha and Stephen Deets, Political Learning in Post- Communist Elections, East European Politics and Societies 20, no. 4 (2006): 693. 112. Enyedi, The Role of Agency in Cleavage Formation, 699. 113. Fowler, Concentrated Orange, 87. Another poll conducted between October and November 1995 showed MSZP and FKGP almost tied in support (14.1 and 13.7 percent, respectively) if the general election was held next Sunday. Data from TÁRKI, Hungary Study in ISSP, 146. 114. Fowler, Concentrated Orange, 90. 115. SZDSZ: 14 to 5 percent undecided; FKGP: 43 to 18 percent; MSZP: 24 to 12 percent. Ibid. 116. Tamás Papp (Office Manager, Hungarian Human Rights Foundation), interview with the author, April 24, 2003; Interview with analyst for Department of Strategic Analysis, Government Office for Hungarian Minorities Abroad, April 28, 2003. 117. Interview with advisor to the Foreign Affairs Committee of the Hungarian Parliament, May 22, 2003. 118. Hungarian Premier Says Status Law Is National Reunification across Borders, Hungarian Radio, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, October 25, 2001. 119. András Klein, Néhány gondolat az Orbán-kormány külpolitikájáról [Some Thoughts about the Orbán Government s Foreign Policy], Pro Minoritate 7, no. 1 (1999), http://www.hhrf.org/prominoritate/1999/99tel010.htm. 120. Speech by Zsolt Németh in A határon túli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája [Parliamentary Debate about the Draft Law on Hungarians Living in Neighboring Countries], reprinted in A Státustörvény, ed. Kántor, 94 98. 121. Papp, interview. 122. Interview with member of the Secretariat for Minority Affairs, Office of the Prime Minister, May 23, 2003. 123. Interview with analyst for the Department of Strategic Analysis, Government Office for Hungarian Minorities Abroad, April 28, 2003. 124. Zsolt Németh, speaking as the secretary of the Foreign Ministry in front of parliament on March 23, 1999. Session 57, speech 277, http://www.parlament. hu/naplo98/057/n057_277.htm. 125. Hungarian Forum Discusses Strategy for Ethnic Hungarians, Duna TV (Budapest), February 21, 1999, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, February 23, 1999. 126. Ethnic Hungarian Forum Takes Institutional Form, Hungarian Radio (Budapest), February 21, 1999, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, February 22, 1999.

186 Notes Chapter 4 1. Daniel C. Thomas, The Helsinki Effect: International Norms, Human Rights, and the Demise of Communism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 27 88. 2. Ferenc Váli, International Minority Protection from the League of Nations to the United Nations, in The Hungarians: A Divided Nation, ed. Stephen Borsody (New Haven: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, 1988), 111. 3. Quoted in ibid. 4. Ignác Romsics, Hungary in the Twentieth Century (Budapest: Corvina, 1999), 407. 5. Tabajdi, Több évtizedes hallgatás után, [After Many Years of Silence] in Mérleg és Számvetés Tizenhárom Év Után: A magyarságpolitikai rendszerváltás kezdete [Balance and Reckoning After Thirteen Years: The Beginning of the Transformation in Ethnic Hungarian Policy], ed. Csaba Tabajdi (Budapest: Codex Print Kft., 2001), 71 72. 6. Imre Szokai and Csaba Tabajdi, Mai politikánk és a nemzetiségi kérdés [Our Current Policy and the Nationality Question], Magyar Nemzet, February 13, 1988, reprinted in Tabajdi, ed., Mérleg és Számvetés Tizenhárom Év Után. 7. Ibid. 8. Attila Ágh, Europeanization of Policy-Making in East Central Europe: The Hungarian Approach to EU Accession, Journal of European Public Policy 6, no. 5 (1999): 842. 9. Tibor Navracsics, A Missing Debate? Hungary and the European Union, (University of Sussex European Institute Working Paper Series 21, 1997), 13 15, http://www.sussex.ac.uk/sei/1-4-10-1.html. 10. Agnes Batory, The Political Context of EU Accession in Hungary (working paper, The Royal Institute of International Affairs, European Programme, November 2002), 2 3, http://www.chathamhouse.org.uk/publications/ papers/.../3052_hungarian.pdf. 11. Ágh, Europeanization of Policy-Making in East Central Europe, 843. 12. Batory, The Political Context of EU Accession in Hungary, 4 5. 13. Judith Tóth, Connections of Kin minorities to the Kin-state in the Extended Schengen Zone, in The Hungarian Status Law: Nation-Building and/or Minority Protection, ed. Zoltán Kántor, et al. (Sapporo: Slavic Research Centre, Hokkaido University, 2004), 373 374. 14. Interview with advisor to the President of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and former Vice President of the Government Office for Hungarian Minorities Abroad, May 13, 2003; Interview with public foundation director, May 8, 2003. 15. Péter Kovács, A schengeni vízumrendszer és a határon túli magyarok [The Schengen Visa System and the Hungarians Beyond the Border] in Schengen: A magyar-magyar kapcsolatok az uniós vízumrendszer árnyékában [Schengen: Hungarian-Hungarian Relations in the Shadow of the EU Visa System], ed. Judit Tóth (Budapest: Lucidus, 2000), 31 33.

Notes 187 16. Navracsics, A Missing Debate?, 16. 17. Hungarian Daily Reviews Four Years of EU-Hungarian Relations, Népszabadság, April 3, 2002, as provided by BBC Monitoring World Reports, April 4, 2002. 18. Zsuzsa Csergő and James M. Goldgeier, Nationalist Strategies and European Integration, Perspectives on Politics 2, no. 1 (2004): 28 29. 19. Acquis communautaire refers to all real and potential rights and obligations of EU membership; the accession acquis is the whole body of EU law and practice. 20. Julia Gelatt, Schengen and the Free Movement of People Across Borders, Migration Information Source, Migration Policy Institute (October 1, 2005), http://www.migrationinformation.org/feature/print.cfm?id=338. 21. Heather Grabbe, The Sharp Edges of Europe: Security Implications of Extending EU Border Policies Eastwards (The Institute for Security Studies, Western European Union, Occasional Papers 13, March 2000), 10 11, http:// www.iss.europa.eu/nc/actualites/actualite/browse/62/article/the-sharp-edges-ofeurope-security-implicationsbrof-extending-eu-borders-policies-eastwards/. 22. Giuliano Amato and Judy Batt, The Long-Term Implications of EU Enlargement: The Nature of the New Border (report, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, European University Institute with The Forward Studies Unit, European Commission, April 1999), 56 58. 23. Hungarian Foreign Minister Explains Tough Talks with EU, Regional Policy, TV1 (Budapest), July 12, 1998, as provided by BBC Monitoring International Reports, July 13, 1998. 24. Judit Tóth, The Application of Justice and Home Affairs and the Position of Minorities: The Case of Hungarian Minorities, (Centre for European Policy Studies Policy Brief no. 18, March 2002), 7, http://www.ceps.be/book/ application-justice-and-home-affairs-and-position-minorities-case-hungary. 25. János Hargitai, Fidesz representative and then speaker of the Budget and Economic Affairs Committee of Parliament in A határon túli magyarokról szóló törvényjavaslat parlamenti vitája [Parliamentary Debate about the Draft Law on Hungarians Living in Neighboring Countries] in A Státustörvény: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika [The Status Law: Documents, Essays, Articles], ed. Zoltán Kántor (Budapest: Teleki László Alapítvány, 2002), 87 88. 26. Zsuzsa Csergő and James M. Goldgeier, Virtual Nationalism, Foreign Policy no. 125, ( July/August 2001): 77 78. 27. Barna Bodó, Schengen The Challenge, Minorities Research no. 3 (1999), http://www.hhrf.org/kisebbsegkutatas/mr_03/cikk.php?id=1237. 28. Editor s forward in Tóth, ed. Schengen: A magyar-magyar kapcsolatok az uniós vízumrendszer árnyékában, 10. 29. Tibor Szabó, Az anyaország és a határon túli magyar közösség közötti jogviszony kiépítésének első lépése [The First Step in Building a Legal Relationship Between the Mother Country and the Communities of Hungarians Beyond the Border]. Reprinted in Zoltán Kántor, ed., A Státustörvény: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika (Budapest: Teleki László Alapítvány, 2002), 51 52.

188 Notes 30. György Csepeli and Antal Örkény, The Changing Facets of Hungarian Nationalism, Social Research, no. 63 (1996): 280. 31. Antal Örkény (Professor of Sociology and Director of the Minority Studies program, Eötvös Lorand University), interview with the author, April 16, 2003. 32. Imre Borbély, Külhoni magyarok Egy nemzetpolitikai szükségmegoldás [External Hungarians: A Nation Policy Stop-Gap Measure] Magyar Demokrata no. 37 40 (2000), http://www.demokrata.hu/. 33. Vita a Kettős Állampolgárságról: Interjú Csoóri Sándorral, a Magyarok Világszövetsége elnökével, 1998 április 12 [Debate about Dual Citizenship: Interview with Sándor Csoóri, the President of the World Federation of Hungarians, April 12, 1998] in Géza Gecse, ed., Állam és Nemzet a Rendszerváltás Után (Budapest: Kairosz, 2002), 75. 34. Fidesz representative László Németh in A Kettős Állampolgárságról: Kerekasztal, 1998 április 19, 79 80. 35. István Benyhe, Kettős állampolgárság a Kárpát-medencében? [Dual Citizenship in the Carpathian Basin?] Magyar Kisebbség 2 3, no. 16 17 (1999), http:// www.jakabffy.ro/magyarkisebbseg/index.php?action=cimek&lapid=12&cikk=m 990201.htm. 36. Gyula Horn, Azok a Kilencvenes Évek... (Budapest: Kossuth Kiadó, 1999), 366. 37. Demand of Dual Citizenship for Ethnic Hungarians Unfeasible Foreign Minister, Hungarian Radio (Budapest), April 6, 1998, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, April 7, 1998. 38. Citizenship by Declaration of Hungarian Origin Political Nonsense Minister, MTI News Agency (Budapest), March 22, 1999, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, March 24, 1999. 39. Erika Törzsök, Látványpolitika [A Politics of Appearances], Élet és Irodalom, January 4, 2002. 40. Ethnic Hungarian Party Branch Criticizes Leadership over Dual Citizenship, Duna TV (Budapest), April 17, 1998, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, April 29, 1998. 41. Ethnic Hungarians Change Their Minds over Dual Citizenship Demand, Hungarian Radio (Budapest), April 7, 1998, as provided by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, April 9, 1998. 42. Miklós Patrubány, Tervezet a külhoni magyar állampolgárság jogintézményének alkotmányos létrehozása: Patrubány Miklós, a Magyarok Világszövetségének elnökének ajánlása, 2000 augusztus 20 [Plan for the Constitutional Creation of the Legal Institutions of Foreign Hungarian Citizenship: Recommendation of Miklós Patrubány, President of the World Federation of Hungarians, August 20, 2000]. Reprinted in A Státustörvény: Dokumentumok, Tanulmányok, Publicisztika, ed. Kántor, 38 44. 43. Borbély, Külhoni magyarok. 44. Gecse, A Kettős Állampolgárságról: Kerekasztal, 1998 április 19 [About Dual Citizenship: Roundtable, April 18, 1999] in Állam és Nemzet a Rendszerváltás Után [State and Nation after the Transition], ed. Géza Gecse (Budapest: Kairosz, 2002).