University of Pannonia. Doctoral School of Management Sciences and Business Administration. Csuka Gyöngyi

Átírás

1 University of Pannonia Doctoral School of Management Sciences and Business Administration Csuka Gyöngyi Regulatory Factors Influencing National Economic Competitiveness PhD Thesis Summary Thesis Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Ádám Török Veszprém 2012

2 Table of Contents 1 Subject and Aims of the Research Methodology and Data Used The Main Results of the Research The Economic Aspects of Regulation Analysis of Indicators Regulatory Factors that Influance Hungarian Economic Competitiveness case study Mediation in Hungary References Own Publications

3 1 Subject and Aims of the Research The subject of the thesis is the analysis of the complex relationship between a country s legal and economic systems, in particular the regulatory aspects of national economic competitiveness. The questions addressed are how regulation affects the economic competitiveness of nations, and also the competitiveness of companies. 2 Methodology and Data Used In the first phase of the research, the impact of regulatory environment on competitiveness was analyzed on international level. In the second phase, the main regulatory factors that influence the competitiveness of small- and medium-sized Hungarian companies were outlined through an empirical survey. First of all I processed World Bank s Doing Business database, because it contains the most detailed analysis of businesses regulatory environment. I analized indicators about starting a business (days, procedures etc.), contracts, building permits, employment, closing a business and so on. This database does not cover all the examined areas, so I completed this with various indicators other competitiveness rankings. The correlations between these indicators were analized using a correlation matrix. The indicators were grouped and the numbers of indicators were reduced with the help of principal component analysis. The strength of correlation between principal components and competitiveness rankings were analized for the selected countries. The resulting data sets were still not sufficient for testing regulatory environment, so in the second stage of the research I revealed missing indicators in a survey carried out in Hungary. These indicatorswere not included in the model: partly because of the low willingness of response, partly because the primary research was limited to one country. Directions for further research could be sending out questionnaires to the other examined countries (so we can get a more expanded and refined model). Empirical research shows that only a small number of Hungarian firms turn to mediators to settle disputes. The research about mediation revealed the underlying causes of this phenomenon. The respondents identified possible solutions for alternative dispute resolution methods to spread. The mediation is shorter than litigation, so the cost-reducing effect is likely to improve competitiveness. Therefore, it is essential to be widely used. 3 The Main Results of the Research 3.1 The Economic Aspects of Regulation 1. Researchers began to analyse the economic approach of the regulatory system in Hungary after the economic reform in However, the school of modern law and economic findings did not apply the relationship between the regulatory system and competitiveness in Hungary yet. 3

4 The relationship between law and economics can be examined from two angles. First, the analysis of relevant legal decisions, court cases, agreements could be based on economic aspects (such as suing for demages), on the other hand, examining how legislation, regulation affects business environment (such as through tax legislation). The economic analysis of law appeared in Hungary in mid-1980s, when the book entitled Economic Analysis of Law edited by Attila Harmathy and András Sajó was published. This book contains translated studies from the Chicago School s representatives. In 1989 the book The Relationship between Economic and Law Legal Theory Point of View by Sajó was published, which highlights the effects of government intervention, the effects and problems of regulation (Sajó, 1989). The interest in the subject observed in the United States and later in Western Europe, had not been yet developed between lawyers or economists in Hungary. Works were published about law and economics in this time too, but these were mainly a summary of foreign trends, rather than new ideas or conclusions. Research began to analyse the economic approach of the regulatory system in Hungary after the economic reform in However, the school of modern law and economic findings did not yet apply in Hungary. Works of István Csillag (1986), Vilmos Falubíró (1983), Ottó Gadó (1972, 1976), István Gergely (1977), Tamás Sárközy (1977, 1981, 1984) were published in the Hungarian Journal of Economics and in the Journal of Public Finance about small- and medium sized enterprises, problems of regulatory systems (Török, Csuka, 2011: 185). Not only had been the economist s but also the lawyer s interests attracted to the economic analysis of law. We can mention two Hungarian legal scientists Béla Pokol (2000) and Zoltán Tóth J. (2004) studies about Posner and the economists of the Chicago School. The second approach economic regulation deals with the regulatory role of state, market regulation etc. Theories of economic regulation were developed in the 1970s by the economist of Chicago school. They belived if the free market is inefficient, the government needs to regulate (Posner, 1974). The regulatory process does not end with the legislation. The measure of impact, feedback is required. The state regulated directly the economy; the firms were governed with detailed instructions and standards after the nationalization in Hungary, in The National Planning Office provided the frame numbers, which determined the production. In this sense the regulation was the direct instruction to be fulfilled (Csuka 2007: 59-61). After the reform in 1968, the strict hierarchial relationship between the state and the companies loosened, the state s management role was significantly reduced (Antal, 1980: 41-43). The state still played a dual role: not only that of management, but that of control too. The relationship between the state and the companies changed, the companiesstill operated under state direction, but needed a law, which could regulate competition relations as well (Korom, 1972: 13). This regulation was more like a consumer protection regulation (to protect citizens and consumers), rather than the basis of free competition regulation (Korom, 1972: 13). New forms of business were created as a result of regulations introduced in The state-owned enterprises became semi-autonomous; the industrial ministries lost their direct 4

5 distribution rights (Csillag, 1999: 57). The state continually reduced its regulatory roles till the second half of the eighties, but the regulatory problems still existed. The newly formed small businesses were forced to act almost as big companies and to think in the short term, because of the inadequate regulatory environment (Csillag, 1986: 108). Small companies needed to build their organizational structure and internal division of labor in the same way as was at large companies in order to become competitive against them (Csillag, 1986: 109). The new small businesses were able to appear on niche markets, where large companies did not produce or provide services (Berend, 1988:437). During the regime change, large enterprises were privatized and the government gradually retreat from the market. The role of the state is the determination of regulation of markets (such as minimum wage determination, the requirements of different social benefits, paid taxes), they rarely interfere in the operation (except such as through rulings of the Competition Authority). The rules created by the state mean security and protection for smalland medium sized businesses against economic crimes or other abuses, that is why creating a reasonable, predictable and transparent business environment is of great importance. 3.2 Analysis of Indicators The most popular country-level competitiveness analyses and rankings are those made by the World Economic Forum (WEF) and the International Institute for Management Development (IMD). The regulatory environment of businesses is described more detailed by the World Bank s Doing Business (DB) indicators. The DB indicators are suited for describing the factors of competitiveness, which arise from the differences in the legislation. There are other databases except WEF, IMD and DB to evaluate the businesses regulatory environment, but the access to them is often limited. The databases are not freely available, or the research institutes make often only the final rankings public, or the range of countries is so limited, that the comparison with the competitiveness rankings does not make sense. The best known databases are: Business Environment and Enterprise Survey, Index of Economic Freedom, World Markets Research Center, Economic Freedom of the World, Country Risk Service, International Country Risk Guide, Business Environment Risk Intelligence, Country Risk Reports, Country Credit Ratings, and the Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Confidence Index. 2. The change of competitiveness both on organizational and on national level has quantifiable elements. The novel component of the research is the quantitative analysis of the regulatory indicators. A correlation can be shown between these indicators that describe the regulations. My aim was to have the widest range of countries possible to be examined. I worked with data, which can be found in the two competitiveness ranking and in the DB database, so the analysis included 56 countries. The chosen year was 2011, because for this period was available the most recent data, when I wrote the thesis. There is no perfect method for the evaluation of competitiveness, but according to the chosen indicators we conclude how the regulation infers the competitiveness. On the basis of IMD, WEF and DB, 95 indicators were 5

6 added to the model. Among the selected indicators there were so called hard, soft (based on surveys) and average descriptive indicators. The soft indicators are often influenced by the mood of business leaders and the political environment as well. The indicators are grouped by other criteria, e.g. the state can have a direct affect on it or not (for example the amount of taxes), or other rules can change them or not (for example the required time for paying a tax). Other classification can be, when we distinguish them according to the effect of regulation, transparency, and certification of the institutional system operation indicators. Or we can distinguish indicators, that have direct affect on business environment or not. First step was to explore the relations between individual indicators with the help of correlation matrix (Sajtos, Mitev, 2007: 209). This analysis is able to demonstrate links between the indicators, but is not able to discover the cause-effect relationships. So we can not say for example that the high level of bureaucracy leads to more tax evasion or tax evasion eliminates large bureaucracy. In the correlation matrix there is no difference between explanatory and explained variables, but it still can be assumed that there is a casual relationship between the indicators (Sajtos, Mitev, 2007: 211). The calculation shows a clear, explicable economic correlation between the variables. For example, there is a strong correlation between intellectual property protection and property rights, or between ethical behaviour of firms and irregular payments and bribes. The explanation of a weaker correlation is not so easy: for example there is correlation between ease of access to loans and public trust of politicians. 3. The regulatory environment of national competitiveness can be described by 13 principal components. These are: Starting a business, Closing a business, Intangible assets, Building permits, Property, Finance, Taxes, Unfair practices, External environment, Institutions, Trade, Employment and Contracts. After the exploration of correlation, the next step was grouping the indicators and the principal component analysis. This analysis makes it possible to reduce the number of indicators and to make the model more transparent (Figure 1.). These principal components can be compared with the competitiveness rankings. 6

7 Figure 1. The model Competitiveness Starting a business Closing a business Procedures Time Time Cost Cost Recovery rate Intangible assets Intellectual property protection Intellectual property rights Building permits Dealing with constuction permits - time Dealing with construction permits - cost Dealing with construction permits - procedures Property Finance Taxes Registering property - procedures Registering property - time Property rights Regulation of securities exchanges Financing through local equity market Ease of access to loans Credit Protection of minortiy shareholders interests Venture capital avaibility Strength of auditing and reporting standards Auditing and accounting practices Finance and banking regulation Availability of financial services Affordability of financial services Extent and effect of taxation Personal taxes Real corporate taxes Corporate tax rate Unfair practices External environment Institutions Trade Employment Contracts Tax evasion Bureucracy Judicial independence Time to export Paralell economy Diversion of public funds Bribing and corruption Irregular payments and bribes Connectivity Justice Cost to export Ethical practices Quality of overall infrastructure Environmental laws Management education Effectiveness of anti-monopoly policy Extent of market dominance Ethical behavior of firms Legal and regulatory framework Efficiency of legal framework in challenging regulations Efficiency of legal framework in settling disputes Transparency of government policymaking Government decisions Transparency Adabtability of government policy Burden of government regulation Financial institutions transparency Documents to export Paid annual leave Flexibility of wage determination Hiring and firing practices Time to import Employment Cost to import Documents to import Prevalence of trade barriers Customs authorities Unemployment legislation Enforcing contracts - procedures Enforcing contracts - time Corporate debt Shareholders rights Subsidies Public trust of politicians Technological regulation Scientific research legislation Creation of firms Competition legislation 7 8

8 4. According to the quantitative analysis a clear correlation can be detected between the principal components and competitiveness. The created component groups are able to describe the indicators and their relationship to competitiveness. 5. The strongest correlation can be observed between the World Economic Forum s competitiveness ranking and the External environment principal component, whereas the weakest correlation is with the Taxes. 6. The strongest correlation can be observed between the International Institute for Management Development s competitiveness ranking and the Institute s principal component, whereas the weakest correlation is with the Contracts. There are strong correlation between the next groups and the IMD s competitiveness indicators. The strongest correlation can be observed with the institutions (+0,891), external environment (+0,879), unfair practices (+0,852), intangible assets (+0,824), and finances (+0,822). If we take into account the rules of rounding, also strong correlation exists with trade (-0,689) and property (-0,661). Moderate correlation can be found between the principal components closing a business (-0,596), employment (+0,548), starting a business (-0,497), taxes (0,478), building permits (-0,399) contracts (-0,379) and the competitiveness. We can speak about correlation between each principal components and competitiveness, but the degree is different. The policy makers should consider all indicators when drafing a relevant regulation. This model is only one possible way to analyze the regulatory factors that influence competitiveness. The model does not include all factors, indicators, which effects starting, running and closing a business. There are factors that can be difficult to quantify, and there are others that characterize a particular country, so comparison with others is not possible. Further research direction can be not only to expand indicators, but also a possible time series analysis. There is one condition regarding the use of time series analysis: indicators must be avaible for several years. 3.3 Regulatory Factors that Influance Hungarian Economic Competitiveness case study In the next phase of the research an empirical survey was taken among Hungarian companies in order to evaluate, how the regulatory environment affects competitiveness 1. The survey contained topics missing from both the IMD and the WEF analyses. In Hungary several studies focused on the administrative burdens of businesses, to explore their impacts on operation and growth. Among these we can highlight László Szerb and József Ulbert research from 2007, Balás and Vékony s research in 2009 and the Trust and Business Research Project of HÉTFA Research Institut in Small- and medium sized enterprises were selected by simple and random selection, so each organization had an equal chance to be included in the sample (Párniczky, 1954: ). Data was collected through questionnaires. The sample included 650 firms and 11,4% 1 Török and Csuka presents the results of the empirical survey in their study from

9 of them returned the completed questionnaire. Due to the low return rate this analysis is a case study; far-reaching conclusions should not be taking. Compared with the results of previous research, however, the concerns of businesses and their solutions can be highlighted. The empirical results suggest that the small and medium-sized enterprises are the most affected by the changes in the regulatory environment. Because of the low number of employees, all tasks must be performed independently. Not only the monitoring of legislation is the task, but all administrative tasks must be done (hiring and firing employees, taxing and so on). While at larger organizations separated departments carry out these tasks. We should investigate not only from time and the multifunctional small businessman s perspective, but also the effects of legislative changes, the costs should also be analyzed. The conflicts between rules make it difficult for officers to navigate through the everyday work, the incurring costs affect competitiveness. Therefore predictable, transparent and simple legal system is needed. What does predictability mean in this sense? We shall have no ex post facto legislation, and businesses should be informed in time. The change in the political environment does not change radically the institution system. Transparency does not only mean that the rules for the operation are available, but mean easier and traceable administration (through the internet) as well. Simplicity means simple, clear and understandable rules. A small business operator who might be lowering educated must understand the regulations and be able to perform their administrative tasks. The effects of economic crisis were not clearly felt at the start of the research. Further it would be worthwhile to examine the effects of the regulation on a larger sample of the Hungarian small- and medium sized enterprises. 3.4 Mediation in Hungary One question in the survey concerned the activities of mediators. Four percent of the respondents took the services of mediator (primarily customer payments adjustments, recovery of contractual rental fee). In order to identify the causes of low value, I carried out a survey among the mediators. 7. Effective mediation is one missing element of the regulatory environment. In Hungary unlike more developed countries, the disputes are still settled mainly in courts, whereas mediation exists mostly just in theory. Mediation is almost unknown in Hungary. Mediation as a term that originally meant to convey, to pacify, to agree (Gyengéné, 2009: 681). The principle appeared first in the United States of America and in the English-speaking countries, especially to settle disputes between trade unions and employers (Gyengéné, 2009: 681). In Hungary, this form of alternative dispute resolution has been present since 2002 (with the Act LV. on Mediation in 2002). During this time the broad spread of mediation activity has not been observed. According to the IRM database, I tried to ask all registered, economic mediators. According to the responses, in order to spread the mediation, not only should the mediators training be emphasized, but already in primary education maybe in social literacy classes should this alternative dispute resolution form be presented. The respondents argued 12

10 that bigger publicity would help to better understand the mediation. On the other hand, the courts and lawyers should also be interested in the mediation process. A solution might be that only in the cases were the mediation process has no results, should a court proceeding be started. The workload of the courts is reduced and a faster closure of pending cases could take place. Mediation procedure can be obligatory in the case of lower value or in non-litigious cases. To a successful mediation it is essential that the mediator has not only legal but also economic knowledge. Respondents highlighted how important is that the mediators are independent experts. The mediation is not a common dispute resolution method in Hungary, often spread by word-of-mouth about the one who deals with such activities. One important condition is that the mediator is an independent expert, and there is no conflict of interest. According to the asked mediators the mediation not known in Hungary, maybe only in criminal matters, so do not take into account neither companies nor individuals in the settlement of disputes. The lawyer s interests are to minimize the number of cases placed to the mediators. Another problem is that the final outcome of the mediation is not binding; the supervisory authorities do not recognize the agreement. After the procedure legal proceedings have to enforce it, so the mediation can be a waste of money. The mediation is a solution for businessis to settle their dispute quickly and out of the court. The procedure relieve courts and generate lower cost, thus it can be assumed that it improves competitiveness effects. 13

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12 15. Gadó, O. (1972): A népgazdasági tervezés társadalmi vonatkozásai. Gazdaság. vol. VI, no. 4, pp Gadó, O. (1976): Az életszínvonal alakulása az as tervidőszakban. Gazdaság. vol. X, no. 1, pp Gergely, I. (1977): A szabályozórendszer szabályozása. Gazdaság. vol. XI, no. 2, pp Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. Global Report Letölthető: Letöltés ideje: február Gyengéné dr. Nagy, M. (2009): Mediáció az igazságszolgáltatásban. Magyar jog. no. 11, pp Harmathy, A. és Sajó A. (szerk.) (1984): A jog gazdasági elemzése. (Válogatott tanulmányok), Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó, Budapest. 21. Igazságügyi és Rendészeti Minisztérium. Közvetítők Adatbázisa. Letölthető: Letöltés ideje: május Index of Economic Freedom. Heritage Foundation & The Wall Street Journal. Letölthető: Letöltés ideje: május International Country Risk Guide. The PRS Group. Letölthető: Letöltés ideje: május International Institute for Management Development. World Competitiveness Online adatbázis. Elérhető: Korom, M. (1972): Irányítási rendszerünk jogi kérdései. Gazdaság. vol. VI, no. 1, pp Párniczky, G. (1954): A reprezentatív statisztikai megfigyelés módszere és alkalmazásának egyes kérdései. Statisztikai Szemle. no. 4., pp Pokol, B. (2000): Posner gazdasági jogelmélete. Gazdaság és jog. vol. 8, no. 9-10, pp Posner, R. (1974): Theories of Economic Regulation. Bell Journal of Economics and Management Science. vol. 5, no. 3, pp Sajtos, L., Mitev, A. (2007): SPSS kutatási és adatelemzési kézikönyv. Alinea Kiadó, Budapest. 30. Sajó, A. (1989): Gazdaság és jog kapcsolata jogelméleti szempontból. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest. 31. Sárközy, T. (1977): A KGST-országok nemzetközi gazdálkodó szervezetei intézményi rendszeréről. In: Gazdálkodás. vol. XI, no. 3, pp Sárközy, T. (1981): Vállalattípusok és a jog. In: Gazdaság. vol. XV, no. 3, pp

13 33. Sárközy, T. (1984): A gazdaságirányítási rendszer és a jogi szabályozás. Gazdaság. vol. XVIII, no. 3, pp Szerb, L., Ulbert, J., Márkus, G. (2009): A magyar mikro- és kisvállalatok adózással, járadékfizetéssel kapcsolatos adminisztratív terhelése. A magyar gazdaság versenyképessége. Szemelvények a Gazdasági Versenyképességi Kerekasztal tanulmányaiból és javaslati anyagaiból. Miniszterelnöki Hivatal, Budapest pp The Global Competitiveness Report World Economic Forum. Letölthető: Letöltés ideje: február The Global Competitiveness Report World Economic Forum. Letölthető: Letöltés ideje: február The Observatory of European SMEs. European Commission. Letölthető: index_en.htm. Letöltés ideje: május Tóth, J. Z. (2004): Richard Posner és a gazdasági jogelmélet. Jogelméleti Szemle, vol 5., no. 1. pp Török, Á., Csuka, Gy. (2011): Gátfutás ólomcsizmában. 20 év múlva. Vissza a jövőbe. Szerk: Muraközy László. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest. pp World Competitiveness Yearbook IMD World Competitiveness Center. Switzerland, Lausanne. 16

14 5 Own Publications Book Chapter in Foreign Language Csuka Gyöngyi [2010]: The Competitiveness of Central and Eastern European Countries: an analysis of the legal environment. In: Regional Development in Central and Eastern Europe. Eds: Gorzelak, G., Bachtler, J., Smętkowski, M. Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group, London and New York., pp Article Published Abroad Csuka Gyöngyi - Kovács Tamás [2006]: Vegyesvállalatok a szovjet érdekszférában között, különös tekintettel a szovjet tulajdonra, Közgazdász Fórum, IX (12) pp Book Reviews and Conference Reports in Foreign Languages Csuka Gyöngyi [2011]: Debate on Obstacles to Participating in International Innovation Competition. Towards an Institutional Explanation of Hungary s Weak Innovation Performance. Debate report. In: Acta Oeconomica. Vol. 61 (1) pp Csuka Gyöngyi Kovács Bernadett Szívós Mihály [2010]: Competition in Innovation Competition in Higher Education. Conference report. In: Acta Oeconomica. Vol. 60 (1) pp Csuka Gyöngyi Kovács Bernadett [2010]: G. M. Peter Swann: The Economics of Innovation An Introduction. Book review. In: Acta Oeconomica Vol. 60 (4) pp Csuka Gyöngyi Kovács Bernadett Szívós Mihály [2009]: Conference on Regional Innovation. Conference report In: Acta Oeconomica 59 (1) pp Csuka Gyöngyi [2008]: Regional Development in Central and Eastern Europe. Conference report. In: Acta Oeconomica 58. (2) pp Csuka Gyöngyi [2007]: UNCTAD World Investment Report Book review. In: Acta Oeconomica 57. (2) pp Book chapter in Hungarian Török Ádám Csuka Gyöngyi [2011]: Gátfutás ólomcsizmában. Szabályozás és versenyképességi feltételek a magyar gazdaságban. In: Muraközy, L. (ed.): 20 év múlva Vissza a jövőbe. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest pp

15 Articles in Hungarian Csuka Gyöngyi Szívós Mihály [2010]: Rangsorok és tükörképek ahogy a leendő hallgatók választanak. In: Competitio.IX. (2) pp Csuka Gyöngyi Kovács Tamás [2008]: Vállalati formák a korai szocializmusban. A magántulajdon továbbélése, In: Fejlesztés és Finanszírozás, Letölthető: Hungarian Conference Publications Csuka Gyöngyi Szívós Mihály [2011]: Vonzáskörzet, döntési szempontok, intézményválasztás. A hallgatójelöltek új egyetem- és főiskola választási szokásai. In: Regionális gazdasági koncentráció, felsőoktatási térszerkezet, innováció. pp Csuka Gyöngyi Kovács Bernadett Szívós Mihály [2010]: Vállalati környezet az egyetemek körül és az egyetem funkcióinak változása. In: Verseny az innovációban Verseny a felsőoktatásban. pp Csuka Gyöngyi [2007]: A jog szerepe az as évek vállalatainak életében Magyarországon. In: 1956: Fordulópont a gazdaságpolitikában, Szegedi Tudományegyetem, Gazdaságtudományi Kar. pp Csuka Gyöngyi Kovács Tamás [2006]: Az állam befolyásoló szerepe az 1948 után gazdasági társaságként továbbműködő vállalatok életében, In: Tudás és versenyképesség Pannon szemmel, Veszprém, Pannon Egyetemi Kiadó, 1 kötet, pp Csuka Gyöngyi [2006]: Az Európai Unió jogegyszerűsítési stratégiája és a versenyképesség. In: A magyar gazdaság versenyképessége, Budapesti Műszaki és Gazdaságtudományi Egyetem, Műszaki Menedzsment Gazdálkodás- és Szervezéstudományi Doktori Iskola. pp Conference Report in Hungarian Csuka Gyöngyi Kovács Bernadett Szívós Mihály [2009]: Konferencia a regionális innovációról. In: Közgazdasági Szemle LVI. (1) pp Citations Mihályi Péter (2010): A magyar privatizáció enciklopédiája. 2. kötet. Pannon Egyetemi Könyvkiadó és az MTA Közgazdaságtudományi Intézete 18